'Khat' (''Catha edulis'', family
Celastraceae,
Ge'ez ጫት ''č̣āt'';
Arabic: قات;
Somali: ''Jaad'';
IPA: ), and also known as 'qat', 'gat', 'chat', and 'miraa'), is a
flowering plant native to tropical
East Africa and the
Arabian Peninsula. Believed to have originated in
Ethiopia, it is a
shrub or small
tree growing to 5–8 m tall, with
evergreen leaves 5–10 cm long and 1–4 cm broad. The
flowers are produced on short axillary
cymes 4–8 cm long, each flower small, with five white petals. The
fruit is an oblong three-valved capsule containing 1–3
seeds.
Khat contains the alkaloid
cathinone, an
amphetamine-like
stimulant which causes excitement and
euphoria. In
1980 the World Health Organization classified khat as a drug of abuse that can produce mild to moderate psychological dependence, and the plant has been targeted by anti-drug organizations like the
DEA.
[1] It is a controlled/illegal substance in many countries.
History
The origins of khat are often argued. Many believe that they are
Ethiopian in nature, from where it spread to the hillsides of East Africa and
Yemen. Others believe that khat originated in Yemen before spreading to Ethiopia and nearby countries.
Sir Richard Burton (''First Footsteps in East Africa'', 1856) explains that khat was introduced to the Yemen from Ethiopia in the 15th century. There is also evidence to suggest this may have occurred as early as the 13th century. Through botanical analysis, Revri (1983) supports Yemen origins of the plant.
[2] From Ethiopia and Yemen the trees spread to
Kenya,
Somalia,
Malawi,
Uganda,
Tanzania,
Arabia, the
Congo, what are now
Zimbabwe and
Zambia, and South Africa.
[3] The earliest recorded use of khat medically is believed to be within the
New Testament.
[4] The ancient Egyptians considered the khat plant a "divine food" which was capable of releasing humanity's divinity. The Egyptians used the plant for more than its stimulating effects. They used it as a metamorphic process and transcended into "apotheosis", intending to make the user god-like.
[5]
In 1854, the Malay writer
Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir noted that the custom of chewing Khat was prevalent in
Al Hudaydah in Yemen: "I observed a new peculiarity in this city—everyone chewed leaves as goats chew the cud. There is a type of leaf, rather wide and about two fingers in length, which is widely sold, as people would consume these leaves just as they are; unlike betel leaves, which need certain condiments to go with them, these leaves were just stuffed fully into the mouth and munched. Thus when people gathered around, the remnants from these leaves would pile up in front of them. When they spat, their saliva was green. I then queried them on this matter: ‘What benefits are there to be gained from eating these leaves?’ To which they replied, ‘None whatsoever, it’s just another expense for us as we’ve grown accustomed to it’. Those who consume these leaves have to eat lots of ghee and honey, for they would fall ill otherwise. The leaves are known as Kad."
[6]
In the town of Bohmensaka, South Africa the consumption of this product has been noted to date back as late as the 1500's. Tribes would chew on these at festivals and large gatherings. Khat was a delicacy to the natives and was customary to their nature.
Cultivation and uses
Bundles of khat, captured by the DEA in July, 2006
Khat has been grown for use as a stimulant for centuries in the
Horn of Africa and the
Arabian Peninsula. There, chewing khat predates the use of
coffee and is used in a similar social context. Its fresh leaves and tops are chewed or, less frequently, dried and consumed as tea, in order to achieve a state of euphoria and stimulation. Due to the availability of rapid, inexpensive air transportation, the drug has been reported in
England,
Rome,
Amsterdam,
Canada,
Australia,
New Zealand[7] and the
United States. The public has become more aware of this exotic drug through media reports pertaining to the
United Nations mission in
Somalia, where khat use is widespread, and its role in the
Persian Gulf. The khat plant is known by a variety of names, such as qat and ghat in Yemen, chat in
Ethiopia, jaad in Somalia and miraa in Kenya and Tanzania.
Khat use has traditionally been confined to the regions where khat is grown, because only the fresh leaves have the desired stimulating effects. In recent years improved roads, off-road motor vehicles and air transport have increased the global distribution of this perishable commodity. Traditionally, khat has been used as a socializing drug, and this is still very much the case in Yemen where khat-chewing is a predominantly male habit.
[8] In other countries, khat is consumed largely by single individuals and at parties. It is mainly a recreational drug in the countries which grow khat, though it may also be used by farmers and laborers for reducing physical fatigue and by drivers and students for improving attention. Within the counter-culture segments of the Kenyan elite population, Khat (referred to as "veve") is used to counter the effects of a hangover or binge-drinking, similar to the use of the
coca leaf in
South America. Cheweing Khat is not primarily a male activity in Yemen, with women having their own saloons for the occasion and partaking in cheweing Khat with thier husbands on weekends. In many places where grown, Khat has become mainstream enough for many children to start chewing the plant before puberty.
Khat is used for its mild euphoric and stimulating effects, and also has
anorectic side-effects. It use is generally not limited by religion, though the
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (along with its
Eritrean counterpart) has forbidden Christians from using it due to its stimulating effects. In Yemen it is so popular that 40% of the country's water supply goes towards irrigating it, with production increasing by about 10% to 15% every year.
[9] The water supply of
Sanaa is so threatened by the crop that government officials have even proposed relocating large portions of the city's population to the coast of the
Red Sea.
[9]
In Somalia, the
Supreme Islamic Courts Council, which took control of much of the country in 2006, banned khat during
Ramadan, sparking street protests in
Kismayo. In November 2006, Kenya banned all flights to Somalia, citing security concerns, prompting protests by Kenyan khat growers. The Kenyan MP from Ntonyiri,
Meru North District stated that local land had been specialized in khat cultivation, that 20 tons worth $800,000 were shipped to Somalia daily and that a flight ban could devastate the local economy.
[11] With the victory of the Provisional Government backed by Ethiopian forces in the end of December 2006, khat has returned to the streets of Mogadishu, though Kenyan traders have noted demand has not yet returned to pre-ban levels.
[12]
Chemistry/pharmacology
The stimulant effect of the plant was originally attributed to "katin",
cathine, a
phenethylamine-type substance isolated from the plant. However, the attribution was disputed by reports showing the plant extracts from fresh leaves contained another substance more behaviorally active than cathine. In 1975, the related alkaloid
cathinone was isolated, and its
absolute configuration was established in
1978. Cathinone is not very stable and breaks down to produce cathine and
norephedrine. These chemicals belong to the
PPA (phenylpropanolamine) family, a subset of the
phenethylamines related to
amphetamines and the
catecholamines
epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
[13]
Both of khat's major active ingredients -cathine and cathinone- are phenylalklamines, meaning they are in the same class of chemicals as amphetamines. In fact, cathinone and cathine have a very similar molecular structure to amphetamine.
[14]
When khat leaves dry, the more potent chemical, cathinone, evaporates within 48 hours leaving behind the milder Schedule IV chemical, cathine. Thus, harvesters transport khat by packaging the leaves and stems in plastic bags or wrapping them in banana leaves to preserve their moisture and keep the cathinone potent. It is also common for them to frequently sprinkle the plant with water or use refrigeration during transportation.
When the khat leaves are chewed, cathine and cathinone are released and absorbed through the mucous membranes of the mouth and the lining of the stomach. The action of cathine and cathinone on the reuptake of epinephrine and norepinephrine has been demonstrated in lab animals, showing that one or both of these chemicals cause the body to recycle these neurotransmitters more slowly, resulting in the wakefulness and insomnia associated with khat use.
[15]
Receptors for serotonin show a high affinity for cathinone suggesting that this chemical is responsible for feelings of euphoria associated with chewing khat. In mice, cathinone produces the same types of nervous pacing or repetitive scratching behaviors associated with amphetamines.
[16] The effects of cathinone peak after 15 to 30 minutes with nearly 98% of the substance metabolized into norephedrine by the liver.
[14]
Cathine is somewhat less understood, being believed to act upon the adrenergenic receptors causing the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine.
[18] It has a half-life of about 3 hours in humans.
Effects
Khat consumption induces mild
euphoria and excitement. Individuals become very talkative under the influence of the drug and may appear to be unrealistic and emotionally unstable. Khat can induce
manic behaviors and hyperactivity. Khat is an effective
anorectic and its use also results in
constipation. Dilated
pupils (mydriasis), which are prominent during khat consumption, reflect the sympathomimetic effects of the drug, which are also reflected in increased heart rate and blood pressure. A state of drowsy
hallucinations (
hypnagogic hallucinations) may result coming down from khat use as well.
Withdrawal symptoms that may follow prolonged khat use include lethargy, mild
depression,
nightmares, and slight
tremor. Long term use can precipitate the following effects: negative impact on liver function, permanent tooth darkening (of a greenish tinge), susceptibility to ulcers, and diminished sex drive. Khat is usually not an addictive drug, although those who are addicted generally cannot stay without it for more than 4-5 days, feeling tired and having difficulty concentrating.
[13]
However, a recent British study found khat to be less dangerous than tobacco and alcohol.
[20]
User population
It is estimated that several million people are frequent users of khat. Many of the users originate from countries between
Sudan and
Madagascar and in the southwestern part of the
Arabian Peninsula, especially
Yemen. In Yemen, 60% of the males and 35% of the females were found to be khat users who had chewed daily for long periods of their life. The traditional form of khat chewing in Yemen involves only male users; khat chewing by females is less formal and less frequent. In
Saudi Arabia, the cultivation and consumption of khat are forbidden, and the ban is strictly enforced. The ban on khat is further supported by the clergy on the grounds that the Qur'an forbids anything that is harmful to the body. In Somalia, 61% of the population reported that they do use khat, 18% report habitual use, and 21% are occasional users.
Control status
World
In
1965, the
World Health Organization Expert Committee on Dependence-producing Drugs' ''Fourteenth Report'' noted, "The Committee was pleased to note the resolution of the
Economic and Social Council with respect to khat, confirming the view that the abuse of this substance is a regional problem and may best be controlled at that level"
[3]. For this reason, khat was not Scheduled under the
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. In
1980 the World Health Organization classified khat as a drug of abuse that can produce mild to moderate psychological dependence.
Australia
In
Australia, the importation of khat is controlled under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations. Individual users may apply for several required licenses to import up to 5 kg per month for personal use (primarily immigrants from the Horn of Africa). In 2003, the total number of khat annual permits was 294 and the total number of individual khat permits was 202.
{{quotation|There are two types of import permits. The single use Permit to Import can be used only once and you must request a new permit for each time you wish to import khat. Annual Permits are labeled as such and consist of two pages. Annual Permits allow you to import up to 5 kg once a month for up to twelve months.|
Canada
In
Canada, khat is a controlled substance under Schedule IV of the
Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA). Every person who seeks or obtains the substance without disclosing authorization to obtain such substances 30 days prior to obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding eighteen months, where the subject-matter of the offence is a substance included in Schedule IV 'or' is guilty of an offence punishable on summary conviction and liable for a first offence, to a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to both, and for a subsequent offence, to a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year, or to both.
[4] [5]
France
Khat is prohibited in
France as a stimulant.
[13]
Germany
In
Germany, Cathine is a controlled substance, and ownership and sale of the plant is illegal. Similar levels of control exist throughout most other European countries.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, Cathine & Cathinone are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 ''Dangerous Drugs Ordinance''. It can only be used legally by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined $10,000(HKD). The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 (HKD) fine and/or 7 years of jail time.
Israel
Khat is still used by some people of Yemeni origins. Traditionally, it is chewed on Saturday afternoons while reading
the Zohar. The leaves are legal, but the cathonine extract pill called 'Hagiggat' (a joining of the Hebrew word Hagiga (party), and Gat (khat)), is currently illegal.
New Zealand
Khat plant is a Schedule 3 (Class C) drug in New Zealand, but is rarely encountered although occasional seizures at airports have been reported. Mature khat trees which were established before the plant became scheduled in 1998 do not have to be destroyed, but it is illegal to gather the leaves or otherwise prepare the plant for consumption.
Norway
Khat is classified as a
narcotic drug and is illegal to use, sell and possess. Most users are
Somali immigrants and khat is smuggled from
the Netherlands and England.
[22]
Somalia
On November 17, 2006 the usage and distribution of khat was made illegal according to Somali Islamists in areas they control.
[23] In Somalia, the
Supreme Islamic Courts Council, which took control of much of the country in 2006, banned khat during
Ramadan, sparking street protests in
Kismayo. In November 2006, Kenya banned all flights to Somalia, citing security concerns, prompting protests by Kenyan khat growers. The Kenyan MP from Ntonyiri,
Meru North District stated that local land had been specialized in khat cultivation, that 20 tons worth US$800,000 were shipped to Somalia daily and that a flight ban could devastate the local economy.
[11] With the surprise victory of the Provisional Government backed by Ethiopian forces in the end of December 2006, khat has returned to the streets of Mogadishu, though Kenyan traders have noted demand has not yet returned to pre-ban levels.
[25]
Sweden
As in Norway, khat is classified as a narcotic drug in
Sweden and is illegal to use, sell and possess. According to the police, most users are Somali immigrants and most khat is smuggled in from
the Netherlands and England. For more information, see the
Swedish police website on khat (text in Swedish).
Switzerland
Khat is prohibited in
Switzerland as a stimulant.
[13]
United Kingdom
Khat is not a controlled substance in the United Kingdom. Because of this, and because of khat's short
shelf life, the UK serves as a main gateway for khat being sent by air to North America.
[7]
Khat is used by members of the Somali and Yemeni community (mainly men), which is concentrated in
London,
Birmingham,
Bristol,
Cardiff,
Manchester and
Sheffield. It is currently legal, although there are calls from some sections of the Somali community for it to be banned. In the
UK, Cathine and Cathinone are
Class C drugs. The plant '''Catha edulis''' is uncontrolled.
United States
In the
United States, Cathine is in Schedule IV and cathinone is in Schedule I of the U.S.
Controlled Substance Act. The
1993 DEA rule placing cathinone in Schedule I noted that it was effectively also banning khat:
See also
Qat in Yemen
References
★
★ "Somali Islamists are gone -- so "khat" is back!", Reuters, January 2 2007
★
Dale Pendell, ''Pharmakodynamis: Stimulating Plants, Potions and Herbcraft: Excitantia and Empathogenica'', San Francisco: Mercury House, 2002.
Notes
1. "2006 in Pictures" DEA
2. [1]
3. "Khat Information"
4. http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/9/6/456 "Adverse effects of Khat: A review" 01 December 2006
5. [2]
6. Ché-Ross, Raimy. MUNSHI ABDULLAH'S VOGAGE TO MECCA: A PRELIMINARY INTRODUCTION AND ANNOTATED TRANSLATION. Indonesia & the Malay World; Jul2000, Vol. 28 Issue 81, p196
7. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10415187&ref=rss
8. Yemen's khat habit soaks up water by Alex Kirby. bbb.co.uk. Written 2007-4-7. Accessed 2007-4-8.
9. a
10. a
11. "Kenya bans all flights to Somalia", ''BBC News'', 13 November 2006
12. It is widley believed that Somali militia fighters loyal to Mohamed Farrah Aidid were under the influence of khat during the first battle of Mogadishu."Somali Islamists are gone -- so "khat" is back!", ''Reuters'', 2 January 2007
13. Complete Khat Info Drugs.com
14. Adverse Effects of Khat: A Review
15. Biochemical Effects of Catha edulis, Cathine and Cathinone on Adrenocortical Functions
16. Behavioral Effects of Cathinone
17. Adverse Effects of Khat: A Review
18. Cathin, an Amphetamine Related Compound, Acts on Mammalian Spermatozoa via Adrenergic Receptors in a Capacitation State-Dependent Manner
19. Complete Khat Info Drugs.com
20. Drug classification: making a hash of it? House of Commons
21. Complete Khat Info Drugs.com
22. NOVA paper 1/06
23. [6]
24. "Kenya bans all flights to Somalia", ''BBC News'', 13 November 2006
25. "Somali Islamists are gone -- so "khat" is back!", ''Reuters'', 2 January 2007
26. Complete Khat Info Drugs.com
External links
★
How to chew qat
★
BBC News: In pictures... growing khat
★
Drugs.com, Complete Khat Information
★
Esquire "High in Hell"
★
Erowid Khat Vault
★
Growing Catha Edulis (Khat)
★
BBC: Getting to grips with khat in Somaliland
★
BBC: Harmless habit or dangerous drug?
★
Australian Government : Therapeutic Goods Administration Khat Importation Kit
★
Dozens Arrested Nationwide in Drug Case
★
Qat news page -
Alcohol and Drugs History Society (ADHS)
★
★
Khat news page (ADHS)
★
Seattle arrest - Khat and the Somalian community
★
Village Voice article on khat
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