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(Redirected from Kapisa)
'Kapiśa' (=Kapisha) (Persian: کاپيسا) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan. It is in the east of the country. Its capital is Mahmud-i-Raqi, and other districts include Kohistan, Nigrab and Tagab. The population of Kapiśa is estimated to be 360,000, although there has never been an official figure. The area of the province is 1,842 km². [1].
The Governor of the Province, Abdul Sattar Murad, was removed from office in July 2007 by President Hamid Karzai, and a replacement has not yet been named. The ostensible reason for Murad's removal was 'ineffective governance', but it was widely believed by press sources that Murad was removed because of critical comments he made in a Newsweek interview regarding the central government's ineffectiveness in remote areas of the province. [2]
[3]
2006 and 2007 have seen increased insurgent activity in the province. Southern areas of the province, in particular the Tagab district, have been the site of repeated clashes between U.S./Afghan forces and insurgent groups [4].
Fifth century BCE Indian genius of Sanskrit grammar, Achariya Panini, refers to Kapiśi, a city of the Kapiśa kingdom.[1] Kapisi appears as ''Kaviśiye'' in Graeco-Indian coins of Appolodotus/Eucratides.[2] Panini also refers to ''Kapiśayana'',[3] a famous wine from Kapiśa.[4] That Kapiśa was an emporium for the Kapiśayana wine and the product was exported and stored in large quantities in the ancient period is proved by the recent archaeological discoveries (1939) at this site of numerous glass flasks, fish-shaped wine jars and drinking cups which were used in the wine trade many centuries ago.[5] Besides, large ivory plaques were also found during excavations at this ancient site. The grapes called ''Kapiśayani Draksha'' and the wine called ''Kapiśayani Madhu'' are referred to in several ancient Indian literature.[6] Classical chroniclers write Kapiśi as ''Kapiscene''. According to Pliny,[7] City of Kapiscene (=Kapiśi) was destroyed in sixth c BCE by the Achaemenian emperor Cyrus (Kurush) (558-530 BC). Kapiśi has been identified with modern Begram about 50 miles of north of Kabul on the ground that a Kharoshthi inscription naming the city has been found there.[8] Al-Beruni refers to Kapiśa as Kayabish.[9] ''Kai-pi-shi(h)'' (Kapiśa) was also visited by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang in 644 AD. Hiuen Tsang describes ''Kai-pi-shi(h)''[10] as a flourishing kingdom ruled by a Buddhist Kshatriya king holding sway over ten neighboring states including Lampaka, Nagarahara, Gandhara and Banuu etc. Till 9th century AD, Kapiśi remained the second capital of the Shahi Dynasty of Kabul. Kapiśa (Chinese Kipin) is stated to have been earlier visited by lord Buddha in 6th c BCE. Ancient Kapiśa Janapada is related to the Kafiristan, south-east of the Hindukush.[11] Kapiśa was known for goats and their skin.[12] Hiuen Tsang talks of Kapiśa (Kai-pi-shi(h)) breed of horses which in fact, was a Kamboja breed, since it was the latter which was always noted for its exceptional breed of horses.
Kapiśa is related to and included Kafiristan. Scholar community holds that Kapiśa is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] In other words, Kamboja and Kapiśa are believed to be two attempts to render the same foreign word (which could not appropriately be transliterated into Sanskrit).[26][27][28][29] Dr Levi further holds that old Persian Ka(m)bujiya or Kau(n)bojiya, Sanskrit Kamboja as well as Kapiśa, all etymologically refer to the same foreign word.[30][28][32] Even the evidence from third century Buddhist tantra text Mahamayuri (which uses ''Kabusha'' for ''Kapisha'') and the Ramayanamanjri by Sanskrit Acharya Kshmendra of Kashmir (11th c AD), which specifically equates Kapiśa with Kamboja, thus 'substituting the former with the latter', therefore, ''sufficiently attest that Kapiśa and Kamboja are equivalent''.[33][34] Even according to illustrious Indian history series: ''History and Culture of Indian People'',[35] Kapiśa is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja. And ''Kapiśi'' is believed to have been the capital of ancient Kamboja.[36] Kapiśa of Paninian times, in fact, refers to the Kamboja kingdom located on the south-eastern side of the Hindukush in the Paropamisadae region. It was anciently inhabited by the Aśvakayana (Greek: Assakenoi), and the Aśvayana (Greek Aspasio) (q.v.) sub-tribes of the Kambojas. Epic Mahabharata refers to two Kamboja settlements: one called Kamboja, adjacent to the Daradas (of Gilgit), extending from Kafiristan to south-east Kashmir including Rajauri/Poonch districts,[37][38] while the original Kamboja, known as Parama Kamboja was located north of Hindukush in Transoxiana territory mainly in Badakshan and Pamirs/Allai valley, as neighbors to the Rishikas of the Scythian land.[39] Even Ptolemy refers to two Kamboja territories/and or ethnics - viz.: (1) ''Tambyzoi'', located north of Hindukush on Oxus, in Bactria/Badakshan, and (2) ''Ambautai'' located on southern side of Hindukush in Paropamisadae. Front ranking scholars like Dr S. Levi, Dr Michael Witzel and numerous others accept the identity of 'Tambyzoi' and 'Ambautai' with Sanskrit Kamboja. Obviously, the Ptolemian ''Ambautai'' formed parts of the Kapiśa kingdom under sway of Aśvakayana/Aśvayana (Aśvaka) Kambojas. It appears probable that the original home of the Kambojas was trans-Oxian Kamboja, from where, some tribal sections moved south-wards and planted colonies in Paropamisan on southern side of Hindukush. With passage of time, the ''Paropamisan'' settlements came to be addressed as Kamboja proper, whereas the original Kamboja settlement lying north of Hindukush became known as 'Parama-Kamboja' i.e. ''furthest Kamboja''.[40] Some scholars call Parama Kamboja as 'Uttara-Kamboja' i.e. ''northern Kamboja''.[41] 'The Kapisa-Kamboja equivalence as suggested by scholars like Dr Levi applies to the Paropamisan Kamboja settlement'.
According to the conventional etymology, the name "Kafir" derives from Arabic ''Kafir'', commonly translated into English as "infidels" or "idolaters". ''Kafiristan'' then would be "The Land of the Infidels". This explanation would justify the renaming of the country after its Islamization.
Many historians,[42] however, opine that the local name "Kafir" comes from ''Kapiś'' (= ''Kapish''), the ancient Sanskrit name of the region that included historic Kafiristan; which is also given as ''Ki-pin'' (or Chi-pin) in old Chinese chronicles. That name, unrelated to the Arabic word, is believed to have, at some point, mutated into the word ''Kapir''. This linguistic phenomenon is not unusual for this region. The name of King Kanishaka, who once ruled over this region, is also found written as "Kanerika", an example of "ś" or "sh" mutating to "r".[43] In a similar way, ''Kapiś'' -- the name of the people of Kapiś/Kapiśa, is believed to have changed to Kapir and then Kafir.[44][45] One of the dominant clan of the Kafirs till recently was known as ''Katir''.
The second change from ''Kapir'' to ''Kafir'', may have occurred spontaneously, since the exchange of "p" by "f" is fairly common in Indo-European languages.[46] It may also have been the result of confusion or intentional wordplay with the Arabic word, since the Kafirs were indeed pagans until 1895.
The derivation of Kafiristan is now fairly easy since ''-stan'' in Iranian language means country, abode or place. Thus, Kafiristan would literally mean the ''land or abode of the Kafir peoples'' i.e. people belonging to Kapiśa.
Today it is disputed if the term ''Kafir'' really defines a traditional ethnic group.
Hiuen Tsang says that from Kapiśa (Kai-pi-chi(h)) to Rajauri ((''Ho-b-she-pu-lo''), the inhabitants are plain in personal appearance and are of rude, violent dispositions......They do not belong to India proper.... but are peoples of the inferior frontier (i.e barbarian) stock. Hiuen Tsang further attests that the written language of the people of Kapiśa is similar to that of the Tokharas, but differs from it in other respects. Their spoken language is vulgar and coarse.
According to scholar community, much of the description of the people from Kapiśa to Rajapura as given by Hiuen Tsang agrees wonderfully well with the characteristics of the Kambojas described in the Buddhist text, Bhuridatta Jataka[47] as well in the great Indian epic Mahabharata.[48][49] Moreover, the Drona Parava of Mahabharata specifically attests that ''Rajapuram'' was a metropolitan city of the epic Kambojas.[50] The Rajapuram (=Rajapura) of Mahabharata (''Ho-b-she-pu-lo'' of Hiuen Tsang) has been identified with modern Rajauri in south-western Kashmir.[51] Culturally speaking, Kapiśa (or Kamboja) i.e. the region from Kapiśa to Rajauri, was more Iranian than Indian.[52]
Scholars have identified the former Kafir clans of the Kams, Kamoje/Kamoz, Kamtoz etc (or'' modern Nuristanis'') as the relics of the ancient Kapiśas i.e. Kambojas of the Paropamisan region. Similarly, the former Kafirs like Aspins of Chitral and Ashkuns or Yashkuns of Gilgit are identified as the modern representatives of the Paninian Aśvakayanas (''Greek: Assakenoi'') and the Asip/Isap or Yusufzai (from Aspazai) in the Kabul valley (between river Kabul and Indus) are believed to be modern representatives of the Paninian Aśvayanas (''Greek: Aspasio'') respectively.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59] The Aśvakayanas and Aśvayanas are also believed to be sub-tribes of those Kambojas, who were exclusively engaged in horse breeding/trading and also formed a specialised cavalry force.[60]
★ Alasay District
★ Hesa Duwum Kohistan District
★ Koh Band District
★ Kohistan Hesa Awal District
★ Mahmud Raqi District
★ Nijrab District
★ Tagab District
Agriculture is the most general and usual means of sustenance. Trades are made between the people in an ancient way of exchanging commodities on trade days (once a week) called ''Mila'', which means "party" but is interpreted as a large gathering of people, having fun together with trade.
There is one hospital in the province. There was once a large textile company, which was destroyed during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; and one cinema, which was also destroyed. Recently a university named Al Biruni University was established, with programs in engineering, medicine, law and literature. The number of girls schools has been very limited, but it is increasing through the cooperation of Charity NGOs.
1. Ashtadhyayia Sutra IV.2.99.
2. See: Notes on Indian coins and Seals, Part IV, E. J. Rapson in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1905, p 784, (Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland).
3. Sutra IV.2.29.
4. Dr S. Chattopadhyaya 1974: 58; India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 71, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; Foreign Elements in Ancient Indian Society, 2nd Century BC to 7th Century AD, 1979, p 86, Dr Uma Prasad Thapliyal.
5. A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the Best Books for ..., 1953, p 118, Dr Peggy Melcher, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell.
6. Cultural History of Ancient India: A Socio-economic and Religio-cultural Survey of Kapiśa and ... , 1979, p 29, Jaya Goswami; India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, 118, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala
7. Pliny, Natural History, VI, pp 23, 25.
8. Epigraphia Indica, Vol XXII, 1933, p 11.
9. Al Beruni's India, Sachau, p 259 ff.
10. Su-kao-seng-chaun, Chapter 2, (no. 1493); Kai-yuan-lu, chapter 7; Publications, 1904, p 122-123, published by Oriental Translation Fund (Editors Dr T. W. Rhys Davis, S. W. Bushel, London, Royal Asiatic Society).
11. Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata, 1970, p 112, Dr R. C. Jain; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India: (a Study on the Puranic Lists of the Peoples of Bharatavarsa, 1955, p 133, Dr S. B. Chaudhuri; The Cultural Heritage of India, 1936, p 151, Sri Ramakrishna Centenary Committee
12. Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, p 183, B. S.Suryavanshi.
13. Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India, Edition 1993, p 121, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
14. Ref: The Greeks in Bacteria and India 1966 p 170, 461, Dr William Woodthorpe Tarn.
15. Indian Antiquaries, 1923, p 54.
16. The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 291; Indian historical quarterly, Vol XXV-3, 1949, pp 190-92.
17. Kathakasankalanam: amskrtagranthebhyah sangrahītani Kathhakabrahmana,- 1981, P xii, Surya Kanta.
18. Epigraphia Indica, Vol XIX-1, p 11.
19. Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 1953, p 58, Sir William Kerr Fraser-Tytler, M. C. Gillet.
20. Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: Saṃskr̥tagranthebhyaḥ saṅgr̥hītāni Kāṭhakabrāhmaṇa, Kāṭhakaśrautasūtra, 1981, pe xii, Dr Surya Kanta.
21. cf: JBORS, XVI, 1930, p 229, Dr K. P. Jayswal; cf: Visnu Purana, II, p 182, Wilson quoted in Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: 1981, p xiv, Surya Kanta.
22. Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, p 44, 147, 155, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
23. Cf: Society and Culture in the Time of Daṇḍin, 1972, p 89, Dr Gupta, Dharmendra Kumar.
24. cf: Journal of Indian History, 1921, p 21, University of Kerala, University of Allahabad Dept. of Modern Indian History.
25. Cf: Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, p 26, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Deptt. of History; Alexander the Great, 2003, Edition, p 277, Dr W. W. Tarn.
26. Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 120, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services. 'See Link': [5]; .
27. Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1, K. D. Sethna; Purana, Vol VI No1, January 1964, K. D. Sethna.
28. See also: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923; Indian Antiquaries, 203, 1923, p 54.
29. Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 44, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī; cf also: Dr J. W. McCrindle, Ptolemy, p 268.
30. Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 120, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
31. See also: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923; Indian Antiquaries, 203, 1923, p 54.
32. Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 44, 147, 155, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
33. See: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923 .
34. Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 121, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
35. History and Culture of Indian People, Vol III, pp 122, 617, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr. K. M. Munshi.
36. A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation, 2000, p 388, Dr Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed(d).
37. The History and Culture of the Indian People, 1977, p 15, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Dr Achut Dattatraya Pusalker, Dr Asoke Kumar Majumdar; An Advanced History of India, 1973, p 54, Dr Rameṣa-Chandra Majumdar; The Soul of India, 1961,p 56, Amaury De Riencourt.
38. Mahabharata 7.4.5; Mahabharata II.27.23.
39. Mahabharata II.27.25; Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and ..., 1874, p 365, Dr John Muir - 1874; Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien: Studien und Reisen, 1865, p 186, Adolf Bastian; The Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; Some Aspects of Ancient Indian History and Culture, 1974, p 62, Dr Upendra Thakur; The Greco-Sunga Period of Indian History, Or, the North-West India of the Second Century B.C. 1973, p 39, Dr Mehta Vasishtha Dev Mohan; Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, p 14, B. S. Suryavanshi. The Riśikas & the Parama Riśikas, whom the Mahabharata closely allies with the Parama-Kambojas, are located right into Śaka-dvipa or Scythia, north of Oxus. See: India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, p 64, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
40. See: Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and ..., 1874, p 365, Prof John Muir; Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh.
41. See: Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories, 1927, p 227, Narayanchandra Banerjee.
42. For instance,Dr Thomas Watters, Dr Moti Chandra, Dr Suniti Kumar Chaterjee, Prof Surya Kanta, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc.
43. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1856, p 239, by Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Indian Caste, 1877, p 286, John Wilson; India of To-day, 1906, p 280, Walter Del Mar.
44. Ref: Publications, 1904, p 124, Published by Oriental Translation Fund (Editors T. W. Rhys Davis, Dr S. W. Bushel, London Royal Asiatic Society); Census of India, 1961, p 26, published by India Office of the Registrar General; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahabharata, Upana parava, Journal of Uttara Pradesh Historical Society, Vol XVI, Part II, pp 48-50; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Dr Satyarti Shastri; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 94, Kirpal Singh;
See also: Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: Saṃskr̥tagranthebhyaḥ saṅgr̥hītāni Kāṭhakabrāhmaṇa, Kāṭhakaśrautasūtra, 1981, p xii, Surya Kanta; cf: The Contemporary Review, Vol LXXII, July-Dec, 1897, p 869, A. Strahan (etc), London; See also: On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A.D., 1904, 124, Dr Thomas Watters. 'See Link:' [6].
45. In ancient Sanskrit literature, there are numerous instances where the name of the people was obtained from the geographical territoty they occupied. Thus Kamboja was both the name of the people as well as their country. Similarly, Gandhara, Abhisara, Kosala, Panchala etc. were names of people as well as their countries. In a similar way, the inhabitants of Kapisa were known as Kapisa, thence Kapis
46. cf: An Abridged Malay-English Dictionary (romanized), 1908, p 95
by Richard James Wilkinson.
47. Jataka 548; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 255-57.
48. Mahabharata 12.207.43-44; Mahabharata 6.11.63-64.
49. Journal, 1920, p 78, University of Calcutta, Deptt. of Letters; Journal of the Department of Letters, 1923, p 78, University of Calcutta; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 134, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 103; Goegraphical Data in the early Purana, 1972, p 164, Dr M. R. Singh.
50. Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava (MBH 7.4.5).
51. Yuan Chwang, Vol I, p 284; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 236, Dr B. C. Law; Journal of the Department of Letters, 1923, p 77, Dept. of Letters, University of Calcutta; Political History of India from the Accession of Parikshit to the Coronation of Bimbisara, 1996, p 133, Dr Hemchandra Raychaudhuri; The Shahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, 1973, p 29, Dr Deena Bandhu Pandey; Census of India, 1961, p 26, India Office of the Registrar General.
52. Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 103.
53. The Quarterly Review, 1873, p 537, William Gifford, George Walter Prothero, John Gibson Lockhart, John Murray, Whitwell Elwin, John Taylor Coleridge, Rowland Edmund Prothero Ernle, William Macpherson, William Smith.
54. An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, 1893, p 75, Henry Walter Bellew.
55. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1864, p 681, by Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
56. The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodoros, 1893, p 334, John Watson M'Crindle, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Marcus Junianus Justinus, Plutarch, Arrian, Diodorus.
57. Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, 1971, p 72; History of Punjab, Publication Bureau Punjabi University Patiala, 1997, p 225, Dr Buddha Prakash.
58. A Comprehensive History of India, Vol II, p 118, Dr Nilkantha Shastri.
59. See also: Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, 1981, p 278, These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119-20, K. S. Dardi etc.
60. For Aśvaka/Kamboja connection See: Historie du bouddhisme Indien, p 110, Dr E. Lammotte; East and West, 1950, pp 28, 157-58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Hindu Polity, A contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10, Dr Buddha Parkash; History of Punjabi, Vol I, 1997, p 225, (Editors) Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala; Raja Poros, 1990, Publication Buareau, Punjabi University, Patiala; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218-19, S Kirpal Singh. Dr J. W. McCrindle says that the modern Afghanistan -- the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiun Tsang was ancient Kamboja, and also says that name Afghan evidently derives from Aśavakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian (See: Alexandra's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. W. McCrindle). Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.
Alexandria of the Caucasus, Achaemenid dynasty, Arachosia, Bagram,
'Kapiśa' (=Kapisha) (Persian: کاپيسا) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan. It is in the east of the country. Its capital is Mahmud-i-Raqi, and other districts include Kohistan, Nigrab and Tagab. The population of Kapiśa is estimated to be 360,000, although there has never been an official figure. The area of the province is 1,842 km². [1].
Politics and Security
The Governor of the Province, Abdul Sattar Murad, was removed from office in July 2007 by President Hamid Karzai, and a replacement has not yet been named. The ostensible reason for Murad's removal was 'ineffective governance', but it was widely believed by press sources that Murad was removed because of critical comments he made in a Newsweek interview regarding the central government's ineffectiveness in remote areas of the province. [2]
[3]
2006 and 2007 have seen increased insurgent activity in the province. Southern areas of the province, in particular the Tagab district, have been the site of repeated clashes between U.S./Afghan forces and insurgent groups [4].
Kapiśa in ancient references
Fifth century BCE Indian genius of Sanskrit grammar, Achariya Panini, refers to Kapiśi, a city of the Kapiśa kingdom.[1] Kapisi appears as ''Kaviśiye'' in Graeco-Indian coins of Appolodotus/Eucratides.[2] Panini also refers to ''Kapiśayana'',[3] a famous wine from Kapiśa.[4] That Kapiśa was an emporium for the Kapiśayana wine and the product was exported and stored in large quantities in the ancient period is proved by the recent archaeological discoveries (1939) at this site of numerous glass flasks, fish-shaped wine jars and drinking cups which were used in the wine trade many centuries ago.[5] Besides, large ivory plaques were also found during excavations at this ancient site. The grapes called ''Kapiśayani Draksha'' and the wine called ''Kapiśayani Madhu'' are referred to in several ancient Indian literature.[6] Classical chroniclers write Kapiśi as ''Kapiscene''. According to Pliny,[7] City of Kapiscene (=Kapiśi) was destroyed in sixth c BCE by the Achaemenian emperor Cyrus (Kurush) (558-530 BC). Kapiśi has been identified with modern Begram about 50 miles of north of Kabul on the ground that a Kharoshthi inscription naming the city has been found there.[8] Al-Beruni refers to Kapiśa as Kayabish.[9] ''Kai-pi-shi(h)'' (Kapiśa) was also visited by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang in 644 AD. Hiuen Tsang describes ''Kai-pi-shi(h)''[10] as a flourishing kingdom ruled by a Buddhist Kshatriya king holding sway over ten neighboring states including Lampaka, Nagarahara, Gandhara and Banuu etc. Till 9th century AD, Kapiśi remained the second capital of the Shahi Dynasty of Kabul. Kapiśa (Chinese Kipin) is stated to have been earlier visited by lord Buddha in 6th c BCE. Ancient Kapiśa Janapada is related to the Kafiristan, south-east of the Hindukush.[11] Kapiśa was known for goats and their skin.[12] Hiuen Tsang talks of Kapiśa (Kai-pi-shi(h)) breed of horses which in fact, was a Kamboja breed, since it was the latter which was always noted for its exceptional breed of horses.
Kapiśa: Equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja
Kapiśa is related to and included Kafiristan. Scholar community holds that Kapiśa is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] In other words, Kamboja and Kapiśa are believed to be two attempts to render the same foreign word (which could not appropriately be transliterated into Sanskrit).[26][27][28][29] Dr Levi further holds that old Persian Ka(m)bujiya or Kau(n)bojiya, Sanskrit Kamboja as well as Kapiśa, all etymologically refer to the same foreign word.[30][28][32] Even the evidence from third century Buddhist tantra text Mahamayuri (which uses ''Kabusha'' for ''Kapisha'') and the Ramayanamanjri by Sanskrit Acharya Kshmendra of Kashmir (11th c AD), which specifically equates Kapiśa with Kamboja, thus 'substituting the former with the latter', therefore, ''sufficiently attest that Kapiśa and Kamboja are equivalent''.[33][34] Even according to illustrious Indian history series: ''History and Culture of Indian People'',[35] Kapiśa is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja. And ''Kapiśi'' is believed to have been the capital of ancient Kamboja.[36] Kapiśa of Paninian times, in fact, refers to the Kamboja kingdom located on the south-eastern side of the Hindukush in the Paropamisadae region. It was anciently inhabited by the Aśvakayana (Greek: Assakenoi), and the Aśvayana (Greek Aspasio) (q.v.) sub-tribes of the Kambojas. Epic Mahabharata refers to two Kamboja settlements: one called Kamboja, adjacent to the Daradas (of Gilgit), extending from Kafiristan to south-east Kashmir including Rajauri/Poonch districts,[37][38] while the original Kamboja, known as Parama Kamboja was located north of Hindukush in Transoxiana territory mainly in Badakshan and Pamirs/Allai valley, as neighbors to the Rishikas of the Scythian land.[39] Even Ptolemy refers to two Kamboja territories/and or ethnics - viz.: (1) ''Tambyzoi'', located north of Hindukush on Oxus, in Bactria/Badakshan, and (2) ''Ambautai'' located on southern side of Hindukush in Paropamisadae. Front ranking scholars like Dr S. Levi, Dr Michael Witzel and numerous others accept the identity of 'Tambyzoi' and 'Ambautai' with Sanskrit Kamboja. Obviously, the Ptolemian ''Ambautai'' formed parts of the Kapiśa kingdom under sway of Aśvakayana/Aśvayana (Aśvaka) Kambojas. It appears probable that the original home of the Kambojas was trans-Oxian Kamboja, from where, some tribal sections moved south-wards and planted colonies in Paropamisan on southern side of Hindukush. With passage of time, the ''Paropamisan'' settlements came to be addressed as Kamboja proper, whereas the original Kamboja settlement lying north of Hindukush became known as 'Parama-Kamboja' i.e. ''furthest Kamboja''.[40] Some scholars call Parama Kamboja as 'Uttara-Kamboja' i.e. ''northern Kamboja''.[41] 'The Kapisa-Kamboja equivalence as suggested by scholars like Dr Levi applies to the Paropamisan Kamboja settlement'.
Kafir and Kafiristan etymologically derived from Kapiśa
According to the conventional etymology, the name "Kafir" derives from Arabic ''Kafir'', commonly translated into English as "infidels" or "idolaters". ''Kafiristan'' then would be "The Land of the Infidels". This explanation would justify the renaming of the country after its Islamization.
Many historians,[42] however, opine that the local name "Kafir" comes from ''Kapiś'' (= ''Kapish''), the ancient Sanskrit name of the region that included historic Kafiristan; which is also given as ''Ki-pin'' (or Chi-pin) in old Chinese chronicles. That name, unrelated to the Arabic word, is believed to have, at some point, mutated into the word ''Kapir''. This linguistic phenomenon is not unusual for this region. The name of King Kanishaka, who once ruled over this region, is also found written as "Kanerika", an example of "ś" or "sh" mutating to "r".[43] In a similar way, ''Kapiś'' -- the name of the people of Kapiś/Kapiśa, is believed to have changed to Kapir and then Kafir.[44][45] One of the dominant clan of the Kafirs till recently was known as ''Katir''.
The second change from ''Kapir'' to ''Kafir'', may have occurred spontaneously, since the exchange of "p" by "f" is fairly common in Indo-European languages.[46] It may also have been the result of confusion or intentional wordplay with the Arabic word, since the Kafirs were indeed pagans until 1895.
The derivation of Kafiristan is now fairly easy since ''-stan'' in Iranian language means country, abode or place. Thus, Kafiristan would literally mean the ''land or abode of the Kafir peoples'' i.e. people belonging to Kapiśa.
Today it is disputed if the term ''Kafir'' really defines a traditional ethnic group.
Physical characteristics of the people of ancient Kapiśa
Hiuen Tsang says that from Kapiśa (Kai-pi-chi(h)) to Rajauri ((''Ho-b-she-pu-lo''), the inhabitants are plain in personal appearance and are of rude, violent dispositions......They do not belong to India proper.... but are peoples of the inferior frontier (i.e barbarian) stock. Hiuen Tsang further attests that the written language of the people of Kapiśa is similar to that of the Tokharas, but differs from it in other respects. Their spoken language is vulgar and coarse.
According to scholar community, much of the description of the people from Kapiśa to Rajapura as given by Hiuen Tsang agrees wonderfully well with the characteristics of the Kambojas described in the Buddhist text, Bhuridatta Jataka[47] as well in the great Indian epic Mahabharata.[48][49] Moreover, the Drona Parava of Mahabharata specifically attests that ''Rajapuram'' was a metropolitan city of the epic Kambojas.[50] The Rajapuram (=Rajapura) of Mahabharata (''Ho-b-she-pu-lo'' of Hiuen Tsang) has been identified with modern Rajauri in south-western Kashmir.[51] Culturally speaking, Kapiśa (or Kamboja) i.e. the region from Kapiśa to Rajauri, was more Iranian than Indian.[52]
Modern ethnics of Kapiśa
Scholars have identified the former Kafir clans of the Kams, Kamoje/Kamoz, Kamtoz etc (or'' modern Nuristanis'') as the relics of the ancient Kapiśas i.e. Kambojas of the Paropamisan region. Similarly, the former Kafirs like Aspins of Chitral and Ashkuns or Yashkuns of Gilgit are identified as the modern representatives of the Paninian Aśvakayanas (''Greek: Assakenoi'') and the Asip/Isap or Yusufzai (from Aspazai) in the Kabul valley (between river Kabul and Indus) are believed to be modern representatives of the Paninian Aśvayanas (''Greek: Aspasio'') respectively.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59] The Aśvakayanas and Aśvayanas are also believed to be sub-tribes of those Kambojas, who were exclusively engaged in horse breeding/trading and also formed a specialised cavalry force.[60]
Districts
Districts of Kapisa.
★ Alasay District
★ Hesa Duwum Kohistan District
★ Koh Band District
★ Kohistan Hesa Awal District
★ Mahmud Raqi District
★ Nijrab District
★ Tagab District
Economy
Agriculture is the most general and usual means of sustenance. Trades are made between the people in an ancient way of exchanging commodities on trade days (once a week) called ''Mila'', which means "party" but is interpreted as a large gathering of people, having fun together with trade.
Amenities
There is one hospital in the province. There was once a large textile company, which was destroyed during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; and one cinema, which was also destroyed. Recently a university named Al Biruni University was established, with programs in engineering, medicine, law and literature. The number of girls schools has been very limited, but it is increasing through the cooperation of Charity NGOs.
References
1. Ashtadhyayia Sutra IV.2.99.
2. See: Notes on Indian coins and Seals, Part IV, E. J. Rapson in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1905, p 784, (Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland).
3. Sutra IV.2.29.
4. Dr S. Chattopadhyaya 1974: 58; India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 71, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; Foreign Elements in Ancient Indian Society, 2nd Century BC to 7th Century AD, 1979, p 86, Dr Uma Prasad Thapliyal.
5. A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the Best Books for ..., 1953, p 118, Dr Peggy Melcher, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell.
6. Cultural History of Ancient India: A Socio-economic and Religio-cultural Survey of Kapiśa and ... , 1979, p 29, Jaya Goswami; India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, 118, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala
7. Pliny, Natural History, VI, pp 23, 25.
8. Epigraphia Indica, Vol XXII, 1933, p 11.
9. Al Beruni's India, Sachau, p 259 ff.
10. Su-kao-seng-chaun, Chapter 2, (no. 1493); Kai-yuan-lu, chapter 7; Publications, 1904, p 122-123, published by Oriental Translation Fund (Editors Dr T. W. Rhys Davis, S. W. Bushel, London, Royal Asiatic Society).
11. Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata, 1970, p 112, Dr R. C. Jain; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India: (a Study on the Puranic Lists of the Peoples of Bharatavarsa, 1955, p 133, Dr S. B. Chaudhuri; The Cultural Heritage of India, 1936, p 151, Sri Ramakrishna Centenary Committee
12. Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, p 183, B. S.Suryavanshi.
13. Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India, Edition 1993, p 121, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
14. Ref: The Greeks in Bacteria and India 1966 p 170, 461, Dr William Woodthorpe Tarn.
15. Indian Antiquaries, 1923, p 54.
16. The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 291; Indian historical quarterly, Vol XXV-3, 1949, pp 190-92.
17. Kathakasankalanam: amskrtagranthebhyah sangrahītani Kathhakabrahmana,- 1981, P xii, Surya Kanta.
18. Epigraphia Indica, Vol XIX-1, p 11.
19. Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 1953, p 58, Sir William Kerr Fraser-Tytler, M. C. Gillet.
20. Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: Saṃskr̥tagranthebhyaḥ saṅgr̥hītāni Kāṭhakabrāhmaṇa, Kāṭhakaśrautasūtra, 1981, pe xii, Dr Surya Kanta.
21. cf: JBORS, XVI, 1930, p 229, Dr K. P. Jayswal; cf: Visnu Purana, II, p 182, Wilson quoted in Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: 1981, p xiv, Surya Kanta.
22. Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, p 44, 147, 155, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
23. Cf: Society and Culture in the Time of Daṇḍin, 1972, p 89, Dr Gupta, Dharmendra Kumar.
24. cf: Journal of Indian History, 1921, p 21, University of Kerala, University of Allahabad Dept. of Modern Indian History.
25. Cf: Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, p 26, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Deptt. of History; Alexander the Great, 2003, Edition, p 277, Dr W. W. Tarn.
26. Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 120, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services. 'See Link': [5]; .
27. Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1, K. D. Sethna; Purana, Vol VI No1, January 1964, K. D. Sethna.
28. See also: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923; Indian Antiquaries, 203, 1923, p 54.
29. Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 44, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī; cf also: Dr J. W. McCrindle, Ptolemy, p 268.
30. Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 120, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
31. See also: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923; Indian Antiquaries, 203, 1923, p 54.
32. Prācīna Kamboja, Jana aura Janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 44, 147, 155, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
33. See: Indian Antiquaries, 52, part 2, 1923 .
34. Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 121, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jules Bloch, Dr Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services.
35. History and Culture of Indian People, Vol III, pp 122, 617, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr. K. M. Munshi.
36. A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation, 2000, p 388, Dr Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed(d).
37. The History and Culture of the Indian People, 1977, p 15, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Dr Achut Dattatraya Pusalker, Dr Asoke Kumar Majumdar; An Advanced History of India, 1973, p 54, Dr Rameṣa-Chandra Majumdar; The Soul of India, 1961,p 56, Amaury De Riencourt.
38. Mahabharata 7.4.5; Mahabharata II.27.23.
39. Mahabharata II.27.25; Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and ..., 1874, p 365, Dr John Muir - 1874; Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien: Studien und Reisen, 1865, p 186, Adolf Bastian; The Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; Some Aspects of Ancient Indian History and Culture, 1974, p 62, Dr Upendra Thakur; The Greco-Sunga Period of Indian History, Or, the North-West India of the Second Century B.C. 1973, p 39, Dr Mehta Vasishtha Dev Mohan; Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, p 14, B. S. Suryavanshi. The Riśikas & the Parama Riśikas, whom the Mahabharata closely allies with the Parama-Kambojas, are located right into Śaka-dvipa or Scythia, north of Oxus. See: India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, p 64, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
40. See: Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and ..., 1874, p 365, Prof John Muir; Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh.
41. See: Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories, 1927, p 227, Narayanchandra Banerjee.
42. For instance,Dr Thomas Watters, Dr Moti Chandra, Dr Suniti Kumar Chaterjee, Prof Surya Kanta, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc.
43. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1856, p 239, by Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Indian Caste, 1877, p 286, John Wilson; India of To-day, 1906, p 280, Walter Del Mar.
44. Ref: Publications, 1904, p 124, Published by Oriental Translation Fund (Editors T. W. Rhys Davis, Dr S. W. Bushel, London Royal Asiatic Society); Census of India, 1961, p 26, published by India Office of the Registrar General; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahabharata, Upana parava, Journal of Uttara Pradesh Historical Society, Vol XVI, Part II, pp 48-50; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Dr Satyarti Shastri; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 94, Kirpal Singh;
See also: Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: Saṃskr̥tagranthebhyaḥ saṅgr̥hītāni Kāṭhakabrāhmaṇa, Kāṭhakaśrautasūtra, 1981, p xii, Surya Kanta; cf: The Contemporary Review, Vol LXXII, July-Dec, 1897, p 869, A. Strahan (etc), London; See also: On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A.D., 1904, 124, Dr Thomas Watters. 'See Link:' [6].
45. In ancient Sanskrit literature, there are numerous instances where the name of the people was obtained from the geographical territoty they occupied. Thus Kamboja was both the name of the people as well as their country. Similarly, Gandhara, Abhisara, Kosala, Panchala etc. were names of people as well as their countries. In a similar way, the inhabitants of Kapisa were known as Kapisa, thence Kapis
> Kapir
> Kafir.46. cf: An Abridged Malay-English Dictionary (romanized), 1908, p 95
by Richard James Wilkinson.
47. Jataka 548; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 255-57.
48. Mahabharata 12.207.43-44; Mahabharata 6.11.63-64.
49. Journal, 1920, p 78, University of Calcutta, Deptt. of Letters; Journal of the Department of Letters, 1923, p 78, University of Calcutta; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 134, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 103; Goegraphical Data in the early Purana, 1972, p 164, Dr M. R. Singh.
50. Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava (MBH 7.4.5).
51. Yuan Chwang, Vol I, p 284; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 236, Dr B. C. Law; Journal of the Department of Letters, 1923, p 77, Dept. of Letters, University of Calcutta; Political History of India from the Accession of Parikshit to the Coronation of Bimbisara, 1996, p 133, Dr Hemchandra Raychaudhuri; The Shahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, 1973, p 29, Dr Deena Bandhu Pandey; Census of India, 1961, p 26, India Office of the Registrar General.
52. Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 103.
53. The Quarterly Review, 1873, p 537, William Gifford, George Walter Prothero, John Gibson Lockhart, John Murray, Whitwell Elwin, John Taylor Coleridge, Rowland Edmund Prothero Ernle, William Macpherson, William Smith.
54. An Inquiry Into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, 1893, p 75, Henry Walter Bellew.
55. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1864, p 681, by Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
56. The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodoros, 1893, p 334, John Watson M'Crindle, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Marcus Junianus Justinus, Plutarch, Arrian, Diodorus.
57. Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, 1971, p 72; History of Punjab, Publication Bureau Punjabi University Patiala, 1997, p 225, Dr Buddha Prakash.
58. A Comprehensive History of India, Vol II, p 118, Dr Nilkantha Shastri.
59. See also: Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, 1981, p 278, These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119-20, K. S. Dardi etc.
60. For Aśvaka/Kamboja connection See: Historie du bouddhisme Indien, p 110, Dr E. Lammotte; East and West, 1950, pp 28, 157-58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Hindu Polity, A contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10, Dr Buddha Parkash; History of Punjabi, Vol I, 1997, p 225, (Editors) Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala; Raja Poros, 1990, Publication Buareau, Punjabi University, Patiala; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218-19, S Kirpal Singh. Dr J. W. McCrindle says that the modern Afghanistan -- the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiun Tsang was ancient Kamboja, and also says that name Afghan evidently derives from Aśavakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian (See: Alexandra's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. W. McCrindle). Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.
See also
Alexandria of the Caucasus, Achaemenid dynasty, Arachosia, Bagram,
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