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'Jupiter' (IPA: or ) is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet within the solar system. It is two and a half times as massive as all of the other planets in our solar system combined. Jupiter, along with Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, is classified as a gas giant. Together, these four planets are sometimes referred to as the 'Jovian planets', where ''Jovian'' is the adjectival form of Jupiter.
The planet was known by astronomers of ancient times and was associated with the mythology and religious beliefs of many cultures. The Romans named the planet after the Roman god Jupiter (also called Jove).^[6] When viewed from Earth, Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of −2.8, making it the third brightest object in the night sky after the moon and Venus. (However, at certain points in its orbit, Mars can briefly exceed Jupiter's brightness.)
The planet Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a small proportion of helium; it may also have a rocky core of heavier elements. Because of its rapid rotation the planet is an oblate spheroid (it possesses a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator). The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes, resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the seventeenth century. Surrounding the planet is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere. There are also at least 63 moons, including the four large moons called the Galilean moons that were first discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of these moons, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.
Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft, most notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager fly-by missions and later by the Galileo orbiter. The latest probe to visit Jupiter was the Pluto-bound New Horizons spacecraft in late February 2007. The probe used the gravity from Jupiter to increase its speed and adjust its trajectory toward Pluto, thereby saving years of travel. Future targets for exploration include the possible ice-covered liquid ocean on the Jovian moon Europa.

Contents

Structure

Composition

Mass

Internal structure

Cloud layers

Great Red Spot and other storms

Planetary rings

Magnetosphere

Orbit and rotation

Observation

Research and exploration

Ground-based telescope research

Exploration with space probes

Fly-by missions

Galileo mission

Future probes

Moons

Galilean moons

Classification of moons

Interaction with the Solar System

Possibility of life

Human culture

See also

References

Additional reading

External links

Structure

Jupiter is one of the four gas giants; that is, it is not primarily composed of solid matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, having a diameter of 142,984 km at its equator. Jupiter's density, 1.326 g/cm³, is the second highest of the gas giant planets, but lower than any of the four terrestrial planets. (Of the gas giants, Neptune has the highest density.)

Composition

Jupiter's upper atmosphere is composed of about 93% hydrogen and 7% helium by number of atoms, or 86% H₂ and 13% He by fraction of gas molecules—see table to the right. Since a helium atom has about four times as much mass as a hydrogen atom, the composition changes when described in terms of the proportion of mass contributed by different atoms. Thus the atmosphere is approximately 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining 1% of the mass consisting of other elements. The interior contains denser materials such that the distribution is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium and 5% other elements by mass. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulphide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. The helium abundance of Jupiter from Voyager, Gautier, D.; Conrath, B.; Flasar, M.; Hanel, R.; Kunde, V.; Chedin, A.; Scott N., , , Journal of Geophysical Research, 1981 ^[7] Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found.^[8]
The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are very close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. However, neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun.^[9] Helium is also depleted, although to a lesser degree. This depletion may be a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet.^[10] Abundances of heavier inert gases in Jupiter's atmosphere are about 2 to 3 times that of the sun.
Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other gas giants Uranus and Neptune have relatively much less hydrogen and helium.^[11] However, because of the lack of atmospheric entry probes, high quality abundance numbers of the heavier elements are lacking for the outer planets beyond Jupiter.

Mass

Jupiter is 2.5 times more massive than all the other planets in our solar system combined; so massive that its barycenter with the Sun actually lies above the Sun's surface (1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center). Although this planet dwarfs the Earth (with a diameter 11 times as great) it is considerably less dense. A volume equal to 1,317 Earths only contains 318 times as much mass.^[12][13]
Extrasolar planets have been discovered with much greater masses than Jupiter.^[14] Some of these planets may be gas giants similar to Jupiter, but because some of these planets are extremely close to their primaries, they may be a class of planet known as hot Jupiters which are not present in our solar system.
Currently, if an object of solar metallicity is 13 Jupiter masses or above, large enough to fuse deuterium by thermonuclear fusion, it is categorized as a brown dwarf; below that mass (and orbiting a star or stellar remnant), it is a planet.^[15] Whether this definition has any fundamental physical significance is unclear; many astronomers argue that large planets and brown dwarfs are essentially the same type of object, and that the distinction between the two does not reflect any basic physical difference.
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had more mass than it does at present, the planet would shrink. The interior would become more compressed under the increased gravitation force; decreasing the planet's volume. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until stellar ignition is achieved.^[16] This has led some astronomers to term it a "failed star", although it is unclear whether or not the processes involved in the formation of planets like Jupiter are similar to the processes involved in the formation of multiple star systems.
Although Jupiter would need to be about seventy-five times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30% larger in radius than Jupiter.^[17][18]
In spite of this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun. The amount of heat produced inside the planet is nearly equal to the total solar radiation it receives.^[19] This additional heat radiation is generated by the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism through adiabatic contraction. This process results in the planet shrinking by about 2 cm each year.^[20] When it was first formed, Jupiter was much hotter and was about twice its current diameter.^[21]

Internal structure

There is still some uncertainty regarding the interior structure of Jupiter. One model shows a homogeneous interior with no solid surface, with density increasing gradually toward the core. Alternatively Jupiter may possess a dense, rocky core with a mass of up to twelve times the Earth's total mass; roughly 3% of the total mass.^[22]19 The core region is surrounded by dense metallic hydrogen, which extends outward to about 78% of the radius of the planet.¹⁹ Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through this layer, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.^10[23]
Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of liquid hydrogen and gaseous hydrogen, with the gaseous portion extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km.¹⁹ Instead of a clear boundary or surface between these different phases of hydrogen, there may be a smooth gradation from gas to liquid as one descends.^[24][25]
The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily toward the core. At the phase transition region where liquid hydrogen (heated beyond its critical point) becomes metallic, it is believed the temperature is 10,000 K and the pressure is 200 GPa. The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be 36,000 K and the interior pressure is roughly 3,000–4,500 GPa.¹⁹

Cloud layers

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulphide. The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued ''zones'' and darker ''belts''. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 m/s (360 km/h) are common in zonal jets.^[26] The zones have been observed to vary in width, color and intensity from year to year, but they have remained sufficiently stable for astronomers to give them identifying designations.¹³
The cloud layer is only about 50 km deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region. There may also be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer, as evidenced by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. (Water is a polar molecule that can carry a charge, so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning.)¹⁹ These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on the Earth.^[27] The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.^[28]
The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are believed to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.^[29]19 These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.¹²
Jupiter's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than at the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports more energy to the poles, however, balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer.¹³

Great Red Spot and other storms

Main articles: Great Red Spot


The best known feature of Jupiter is the 'Great Red Spot', a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator that is larger than Earth. It is known to have been in existence since at least 1831,^[30] and possibly since 1665.^[31] Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and may be a permanent feature of the planet.^[32] The storm is large enough to be visible through Earth-based telescopes.
The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about 6 days.^[33] The Great Red Spot's dimensions are 24–40,000 km × 12–14,000 km. It is large enough to contain two or three planets of Earth's diameter.^[34] The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km above the surrounding cloudtops.^[35]
Storms such as this are common within the turbulent atmospheres of gas giants. Jupiter also has white ovals and brown ovals, which are lesser unnamed storms. White ovals tend to consist of relatively cool clouds within the upper atmosphere. Brown ovals are warmer and located within the "normal cloud layer". Such storms can last for hours or centuries.

Even before Voyager proved that the feature was a storm, there was strong evidence that the spot could not be associated with any deeper feature on the planet's surface, as the Spot rotates differentially with respect to the rest of the atmosphere, sometimes faster and sometimes more slowly. During its recorded history it has traveled several times around the planet relative to any possible fixed rotational marker below it.
In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller in size. This was created when several smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were first observed in 1938. The merged feature was named Oval BA, and has been nicknamed Red Spot Junior. It has since increased in intensity and changed color from white to red.^[35][37][38]

Planetary rings

Main articles: Rings of Jupiter


Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer "gossamer" ring.^[39] These rings appear to be made of dust, rather than ice as is the case for Saturn's rings.¹⁹ The main ring is probably made of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis. Material that would normally fall back to the moon is pulled into Jupiter because of its strong gravitational pull. The orbit of the material veers towards Jupiter and new material is added by additional impacts.^[40] In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea probably produce the two distinct components of the gossamer ring.

Magnetosphere

Main articles: Jupiter's magnetosphere

Jupiter's broad magnetic field is 14 times as strong as the Earth's, ranging from 4.2 gauss at the equator to 10–14 gauss at the poles, making it the strongest in the solar system (with the exception of sunspots).¹² This field is believed to be generated by eddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within the metallic hydrogen core. The field traps a sheet of ionized particles from the solar wind, generating a highly-energetic magnetic field outside the planet—the magnetosphere. Electrons from this plasma sheet ionize the torus-shaped cloud of sulfur dioxide generated by the tectonic activity on the moon Io. Hydrogen particles from Jupiter's atmosphere are also trapped in the magnetosphere. Electrons within the magnetosphere generate a strong radio signature that produces bursts in the range of 0.6–30 GHz.^[41]
At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath, where the planet's magnetic field becomes weak and disorganized. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from the solar wind.¹⁹

The magnetosphere of Jupiter is responsible for intense episodes of radio emission from the planet's polar regions. Volcanic activity on the Jovian moon Io (see below) injects gas into Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing a torus of particles about the planet. As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfven waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When the Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the solar radio output.^[42]

Orbit and rotation

The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. The elliptical orbit of Jupiter is inclined 1.31° compared to the Earth. Because of an eccentricity of 0.048, the distance from Jupiter and the
Sun varies by 75 million km between perihelion and aphelion, or the nearest and most distant points of the planet along the orbital path respectively.
The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small: only 3.13°. As a result this planet does not experience significant seasonal changes, in contrast to Earth and Mars for example.^[43]
Jupiter's rotation is the solar system's fastest, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an Earth-based amateur telescope. This rotation produces a centripetal acceleration at the equator of about 1.67 m/s², compared to the equatorial surface gravity of 24.79 m/s²; thus the net acceleration felt at the equatorial surface is only about 23.12 m/s². The planet is shaped as an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9275 km longer than the diameter measured through the poles.²⁵
Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere; three "systems" are used as frames of reference, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies from the latitudes 10° N to 10° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50m 30.0s. System II applies at all latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55m 40.6s. System III was first defined by radio astronomers, and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's "official" rotation.^[44]

Observation

Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon and Venus);¹² however at times Mars appears brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as high as −2.9 at opposition down to −1.6 during conjunction with the Sun. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 47.1 to 30.6 arc seconds.^[45]

The retrograde motion of an outer planet is caused by its relative location with respect to the Earth.

Earth overtakes Jupiter every 398.9 days as it orbits the Sun, a duration called the synodic period. As it does so, Jupiter appears to undergo retrograde motion with respect to the background stars. That is, for a period of time Jupiter seems to move backward in the night sky, performing a looping motion.
Jupiter's 12-year orbital period corresponds to the dozen constellations in the ) Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital period km % kg % km % days % 'Io' ''eye'-oe''
3643 105 8.9×10²² 120 421,700 110 1.77 7 'Europa' ''ew-roe'-pə''
3122 90 4.8×10²² 65 671,034 175 3.55 13 'Ganymede' ''gan'-ə-meed''
5262 150 14.8×10²² 200 1,070,412 280 7.15 26 'Callisto' ''kə-lis'-toe''
4821 140 10.8×10²² 150 1,882,709 490 16.69 61

Classification of moons

Europa, one of Jupiter's many moons.

Before the discoveries of the Voyager missions, Jupiter's moons were arranged neatly into four groups of four, based on commonality of their orbital elements. Since then, the large number of new small outer moons has complicated this picture. There are now thought to be six main groups, although some are more distinct than others.
A basic sub-division is a grouping of the eight inner regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator and are believed to have formed with Jupiter. The remainder of the moons consist of an unknown number of small irregular moons with elliptical and inclined orbits, which are believed to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. Irregular moons that belong to a group share similar orbital elements and thus may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.^[75][76]

Regular moons	Inner group	The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at radii less than 200,000 km, and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree.
	Galilean moons[77]	These four moons, discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel, orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km, and include some of the largest moons in the solar system.
Irregular moons	Themisto	This is a single moon belonging to a group of its own, orbiting halfway between the Galilean moons and the Himalia group.
	Himalia group	A tightly clustered group of moons with orbits around 11,000,000–12,000,000 km from Jupiter.
	Carpo	Another isolated case; at the inner edge of the Ananke group, it revolves in the direct sense.
	Ananke group	This group has rather indistinct borders, averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees.
	Carme group	A fairly distinct group that averages 23,404,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees.
	Pasiphaë group	A dispersed and only vaguely distinct group that covers all the outermost moons.

Interaction with the Solar System

Along with the Sun, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of most of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane (Mercury is the only planet that is closer to the Sun's equator in orbital tilt), the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly due to Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner solar system's history.^[78]

This diagram shows the Trojan Asteroids in Jupiter's orbit, as well as the main asteroid belt.

In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled into the regions of the Lagrangian points preceding and following Jupiter in its orbit around the sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps" to commemorate the ''Iliad''. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then hundreds more have been discovered. The largest is 624 Hektor.
Jupiter has been called the solar system's vacuum cleaner,^[79] because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner solar system. It receives the most frequent comet impacts of the solar system's planets.^[80] In 1994 comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9, formally designated D/1993 F2) collided with Jupiter and gave informations about the structure of Jupiter. It was thought that the planet served to partially shield the inner system from cometary bombardment. However, recent computer simulations suggest that Jupiter doesn't cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner solar system, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward in roughly the same numbers that it accretes or ejects them.^[81]
The majority of short-period comets belong to the Jupiter family—defined as comets with semi-major axes smaller than Jupiter's. Jupiter family comets are believed to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter their orbits are perturbed into a smaller period and then circularized by regular gravitational interaction with the Sun and Jupiter.^[82]

Possibility of life

In 1953, the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrated that a combination of lightning and the chemical compounds that existed in the atmosphere of a primordial Earth could form organic compounds (including amino acids) that could serve as the building blocks of life. The simulated atmosphere included water, methane, ammonia and molecular hydrogen; all molecules still found in the atmosphere of Jupiter. However, the atmosphere of Jupiter has a strong vertical air circulation, which would carry these compounds down into the lower regions. The higher temperatures within the interior of the atmosphere breaks down these chemicals, which would hinder the formation of Earth-like life.^[83]
It is considered highly unlikely that there is any Earth-like life on Jupiter, as there is only a small amount of water in the atmosphere and any possible solid surface deep within Jupiter would be under extraordinary pressures. However, in 1976, before the Voyager missions, it was hypothesized^[84][85]
that ammonia- or water-based life, such as the so-called atmospheric beasts, could evolve in Jupiter's upper atmosphere. This hypothesis is based on the ecology of terrestrial seas which have simple photosynthetic plankton at the top level, fish at lower levels feeding on these creatures, and marine predators which hunt the fish.

Human culture

The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times and is visible to the naked eye in the night sky. To the Babylonians, this object represented their god Marduk. They used the roughly 12-year orbit of this planet along the ecliptic to define the constellations of the zodiac.¹³
The Romans named it after ''Jupiter'' () (also called Jove), the principal God of Roman mythology, whose name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative form ''
★ dyeu ph₂ter'', meaning "god-father."⁶ The astronomical symbol for the planet,

, is a stylized representation of the god's lightning bolt. The Greek equivalent ''Zeus'' supplies the root ''zeno-'', used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as .^[86]
''Jovian'' is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form ''jovial'', employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean "happy" or "merry"; moods ascribed to Jupiter's astrological influence.^[87]
The Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese referred to the planet as the ''wood star'', 木星,^[88] based on the Chinese Five Elements. The Greeks called it Φαέθων, ''Phaethon'', "blazing". In Vedic Astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it "Guru," which literally means the "Heavy One".^[89] In the English language Thursday is rendered as Thor's day, with Thor being associated with the planet Jupiter in Norse mythology.^[90]

See also

★ Jupiter in fiction

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85. Particles, environments, and possible ecologies in the Jovian atmosphere, Sagan, C.; Salpeter, E. E., , , The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 1976
86. See for example:
IAUC 2844: Jupiter; 1975h That particular word has been in use since at least 1966. See: Query Results from the Astronomy Database
87. Jovial
88. Planetary Linguistics
89. Guru
90. Astronomical Names for the Days of the Week, , Michael, Falk, Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 1999

Additional reading

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External links

★ Jupiter Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration

★ Video from spaceship New Horizon's flyby of Jupiter

★ Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1 Hans Lohninger ''et al''

★ Universal 3D Globe Anonymous

★ Jupiter Anonymous —A kid's guide to Jupiter.

★ Galileo Galilei Anonymous —A kid's guide to Jupiter.

★ The Jovian System —A simulation of the 62 Jovian moons.

★ Jupiter Map and Central Meridian

★ Chasing the Moons of Jupiter Seronik, G.; Ashford, A. R.

★ In Pictures: New views of Jupiter

★ Jupiter Fact Sheet

★ Jupiter