JIHAD

Flag, featuring the first Kalimah, the Shahada, used by Muslims' Army during early Islam

'Jihad' ( ), meaning "to strive" or "to struggle" in Arabic, is an Islamic term and a duty for Muslims. It is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, although it occupies no official status as such in Sunni Islam.^[1] In Twelver Shi'a Islam, however, Jihad '(Holy Struggle)' is one of the 10 Practices of the Religion.

Usage of the term

Classifications of Jihad by Muslims

Objectives of warfare

Against persecution

Supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula

Warfare in Muslim societies

Usage of the term

Jihad literally means to "struggle", notably to "struggle in the way of God" or "to struggle to improve one's self and/or society.^[2] It is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, although it occupies no official status as such. Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants but there are other ways to perform jihad as well including civil disobedience.^[3]^[4] In broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. It can imply striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam, and fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.^[5] In the languages of non-Islamic cultures, the term is usually used to refer to Muslim 'Holy War' or any violent strife invoking Allah.
The primary aim of jihad is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state. In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the rules associated with armed warfare are covered at great length. Such rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well as not damaging cultivated or residential areas.^[6] More recently, modern Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that Jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and Islam. Although some Islamic scholars have differered on the implementation of Jihad, there is consensus amongst them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression.^[7]Some Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad regarded the inner struggle for faith a greater Jihad than even fighting [by force] in the way of God.^[8]
Jihad has also been applied to offensive, aggressive warfare, as exemplified by early movements like the Kharijites and the contemporary Egyptian Islamic Jihad organization (which assassinated Anwar Al Sadat) as well as Jihad organizations in Lebanon, the Gulf states, and Indonesia. When used to describe warfare between Islamic groups or individuals, such as Al-Qaeda's attacks on civilians in Iraq, perpetrators of violence often cite collaboration with non-Islamic powers as a justification. VII. Attacks on Civilians Applying for the Iraqi Security Forces The terrorist attacks like September 11, 2001 planned and executed by radical Islamic fundamentalists have not been sanctioned by more centrist groups of Muslims.^[9]
Middle East Historian Bernard Lewis, who, it should be noted, has been criticized for an alleged "anti-Islamic" bias, points out that some modern Muslims sources try to portray jihad in a spiritual and moral sense when addressing non-muslims. Muslims tell people that they shouldn't try to define jihad by the actions of extremists, but at the balanced Muslims. For most of the fourteen centuries of recorded Muslim history, jihad was most commonly interpreted to mean armed struggle for the defense or advancement of Muslim power. In Muslim tradition, the world is divided into two houses: the House of Islamic Peace (Dar al-Salam), in which Muslim governments rule and Muslim law prevails, and the House of War (Dar al-Harb), the rest of the world, still inhabited and, more important, ruled by infidels. The presumption is that the duty of jihad will continue, interrupted only by truces, until all the world either adopts the Muslim faith or submits to Muslim rule. Those who fight in the jihad qualify for rewards in both worlds—booty in this one, paradise in the next. For most of the recorded history of Islam, from the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad onward, the word jihad was used in a primarily military sense. ''^[10]
The word itself is recorded in English since 1869, in the Muslim sense, and has been used for any doctrinal crusade since c. 1880.
In Modern Standard Arabic, ''jihad'' is one of the correct terms for a struggle for any cause, violent or not, religious or secular (though كفاح ''kifāḥ'' is also used). For instance, Mahatma Gandhi's struggle for Indian independence would be called a "jihad" in Modern Standard Arabic (as well as many other dialects of Arabic) even though it was neither a struggle for Allah (despite religious support for it, the struggle was essentially nationalist and political) nor conducted violently; the same terminology could be applied for the fight for women's liberation.^[11]
Jihad has often been misinterpreted as a 'holy war'. The main aim of Jihad is defensive rather than offensive. When Muslim populations are attacked on the basis of religion, Jihad becomes mandatory on the government of that particular state (and all Muslims) until all hostile forces are either eliminated or negotiated out of the occupied land.
If the threat continues to persist, the Islamic State may have to eliminate the threat by any means necessary.

Classifications of Jihad by Muslims

Sunni view of Jihad

Jihad has been classified either as ''al-jihād al-akbar'' (the greater jihad), the struggle against one's soul (''nafs''), or ''al-jihād al-asghar'' (the lesser jihad), the external, physical effort, often implying fighting.
Gibril Haddad has analyzed the basis for the belief that internal jihad is the "greater jihad", ''Jihad al-akbar''. Haddad identifies the primary historical basis for this belief in a pair of similarly worded hadeeth, in which Muhammed is reported to have told warriors returning home that they had returned from the lesser jihad of struggle against non-Muslims to a greater jihad of struggle against lust. Although Haddad notes that the authenticity of both hadeeth is questionable, he nevertheless concludes that the underlying principle of superiority internal jihad does have a reliable basis in the Qur'an and other writings.^[12]^[13]
On the other hand, the Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya did believe that "internal Jihad" is important^[14] but he suggests those hadith as weak which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword".^[15]
Muslim scholars explained there are five kinds of ''jihad fi sabilillah'' (struggle in the cause of God):^[16]

★ 'Jihad of the heart/soul' ''(jihad bin nafs/qalb)'' is an inner struggle of good against evil in the mind, through concepts such as tawhid.

★ 'Jihad by the tongue' ''(jihad bil lisan)'' is a struggle of good against evil waged by writing and speech, such as in the form of dawah (proselytizing), Khutbas (sermons), etc.

★ 'Jihad by the pen and knowledge' ''(jihad bil qalam/lim)'' is a struggle for good against evil through scholarly study of Islam, ijtihad (legal reasoning), and through sciences.

★ 'Jihad by the hand' ''(jihad bil yad)'' refers to a struggle of good against evil waged by actions or with one's wealth, such as going on the Hajj pilgrimage (seen as the best jihad for women), taking care of elderly parents, or political activity for furthering the cause of Islam.

★ 'Jihad by the sword' ''(jihad bis saif)'' refers to ''qital fi sabilillah'' (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war), the most common usage by Salafi Muslims and offshoots of the Muslim Brotherhood.
Some contemporary Islamists have succeeded in replacing the greater jihad, the fight against desires, with the lesser jihad, the holy war to establish, defend and extend the Islamic state.^[17]

Shi'a view of Jihad

Shi'a Muslims classify Jihad into two; the 'Greater Jihad' and the 'Lesser Jihad'.^[18] The 'Lesser Jihad' refers to defending oneself, one's family and community against oppression and tyranny, upon which there are strict regulations.^[19] The 'Greater Jihad' refers to the struggle inside oneself to obey God (Arabic: Allah) and reject sin.^[20] The 'Greater Jihad', or the struggle to follow God (Allah) and reject sin, is one of the Twelver (Arabic: Ithna 'Ashariyya) Shia Practices of the Religion.

Sufic view of Jihad

The Sufic view classifies "Jihad" into two; the "Greater Jihad" and the "Lesser Jihad". It is Muhammad who put the emphasis on the "greater Jihad" by saying that "Holy is the warrior who wrestles ("struggles") with himself". Here Muhammad was inferring Jacob's "wrestling" with the angel by which he gained the name "Israel". In this sense external wars and strife are seen but a satanic counterfeit of the true "jihad" which can only be fought and won within; no other Salvation existing can save man without the efforts of the man himself being added to the work involved of self-refinement. In this sense it is the western view of the Holy Grail which comes closest to the Sufic ideal; for to the Sufis Perfection is the Grail; and the Holy Grail is for those who after they become perfect by giving all they have to the poor then go on to become "Abdal" or "changed ones" like Enoch who was "taken" by God because he "walked with God". (Genesis:5:24) here the "Holy Ones" gain the surname "Hadrat" or "The Presence".

Jihad as warfare

The Qur’an asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states:
Javed Ahmed Ghamidi divides just warfare into two types:
# Against injustice and oppression
# Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them
The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but Ghamidi holds that the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:'شهادة', see also Itmam al-hujjah); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth. There is a dispute among Islamic jurists as to whether the act of being "witness" was only for the Companions of Muhammad or whether this responsibility is still being held by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of Companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the Companions while others translate it for the whole Muslim nation.^[21] As in Qur'an:
Similarly, proponents of Companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" present following verse to argue that Companions of Muhammad were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Qur'an:
Following is the first verse of the Qur’an in which the Companions of Muhammad, who had migrated from Mecca were given permission to fight back if they were attacked:
The reason for this directive in Medina instead of Mecca considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes:

Directive of warfare

The directive of the Jihad given to Muslims in Qur'an is:
These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the Banu Quraish if they resist them in offering Hajj, but the Qur’an goes on to say that they should continue to fight the Banu Quraish until the persecution perpetrated by them is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of Arabia. Initially Muslims were required to fulfill this responsibility even if the enemy was ten times their might. Afterwards, the Qur'an reduced the burden of this responsibility. As in Qur'an:
Some interpret above verses that ''Jihad'' never becomes obligatory unless the military might of the Muslims is up to a certain level. In the times of Muhammad, when large scale conversions took place in the later phase, the Qur'an reduced the Muslim to enemy ratio to 1:2. It seems that Muslims should not only consolidate their moral character, but it is also imperative for them to build their military might if they want to wage ''Jihad'' when the need arises. The Qur’an gave a similar directive to Muslims of Muhammad times in the following words:
While other scholars consider the later command of ratio 1:2 only for a particular time.^[22]
A policy was adopted regarding the extent of requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of Badr, Uhud and Tabuk, the responsibility was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant. As in Qur'an:
Qur'an also states that turning backs in the battle field, except for tactical purposes, is a big sin and will bring wrath of God.^[23] As in Qur'an:

The driving force

Islamic scholars agree that ''Jihad'' should not be undertaken to gratify one’s whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only and only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words. As in Qur'an:
Prophet Muhammad, at various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Qur’an:

★ Abu Musa Ash‘ari (rta) narrates that once a person came to the Prophet (sws) and said that some people fight for the spoils of war, some for fame and some to show off their valour; he then asked the Prophet (sws): “Which one of them fights in the way of Allah”. The Prophet (sws) replied: “Only that person fights in the way of Allah who sets foot in the battlefield to raise high the name of Allah”. Sahih Bukhari 2810

★ Abu Hurayrah (rta) narrates from the Prophet (sws): “I swear by the Almighty that a person who is wounded in the way of Allah – and Allah knows full well who is actually wounded in His way – he would be raised on the Day of Judgement such that his colour be the colour of blood with the fragrance of musk around him”. Sahih Bukhari 2803

★ Ibn Jabr narrates from the Prophet (sws): “A person whose feet become dust ridden because of [striving] in the way of Allah will never be touched by the flames of Hell”. Sahih Bukhari 2811

★ Sahal Ibn Sa‘ad says that the Prophet (sws) once said: “To reside in a border area for a day to protect [people] against an enemy [invasion] is better than this world and everything it has”. Sahih Bukhari 2892
Similarly as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Qur'an states:

Ethical limits

Main articles: Rules of war in Islam

Islamic Law, based upon the Quran and practices of Muhammad has set down a set of laws to be observed during the lesser Jihad.
Qur'an forbids fighting in sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of Haram. But if non-Muslims disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure.^[24] It is stated in Qur'an:
Observance of treaties and pacts is stressed in Qur'an. When some Muslims were still in Mecca, and they couldn't migrate to Medina, the Qur'an stated:
Similar reports are attributed to Muhammad:

★ Abu Sa‘id (rta) narrates from the Prophet (sws): “On the Day of Judgement, to proclaim the traitorship of a traitor and the betrayal of a person who betrayed his words, a flag shall be hoisted which would be as high as [the extent of his] traitorship”, and [the Prophet (sws) also said]: “Remember that no traitor and betrayer of promises is greater than the one who is the leader and ruler of people”. Sahih Muslim 1738

Objectives of warfare

According to verses , the Qur'an implies two objectives:
#Uproot ''fitnah'' ('فتنة') or persecution
#Establish supremacy of Islam in the world

Against persecution

Directives for action against persecution and unbelief:
Also:
Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive.^[25] Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Qur’an should be fought with:
If Muslims do not have a state, then in such a situation, Muhammad while answering a question raised by one of his followers, directed Muslims to dissociate themselves from such anarchy and disorder:
:I asked: If there is no state or ruler of the Muslims? He replied: In this situation, dissociate yourself from all groups, even if you have to chew the roots of a tree at the time of your death. Sahih Bukhari 7084

Supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula

It is stated in Qur'an:
After Itmam al-hujjah (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), Jews were the ones who were subdued first. They had been granted amnesty because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God. Muhammad exiled the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa to Khyber and that of Banu Nadir to Syria.^[26] The power they wielded at Khyber was crushed by an attack at their strongholds.^[27] Prior to this, Abu al-Rafi and Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf were put to death in their houses.^[28] The tribe of Banu Qurayza was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab.^[29] When the clouds of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint Sa'd ibn Mua'dh as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Qur’an about the fate of the Jews, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh announced his verdict in accordance with the Torah. As per the Torah, the punishment in such situations was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors.^[30]^[31] In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed.^[32] John Esposito writes that Muhammad's use of warfare in general was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord.^[33]
No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of At-Tawba, the final judgement, was declared against them:
This directive related to both the Jews and the Christians. The punishment mentioned in these verses is a show of lenience to them because they were originally adherents to monotheism. However, they did not benefit from this lenience because after the death of Muhammad they once again allegedly resorted to fraud and treachery.^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37] Consequently, the Jews of Khyber and the Christians of Najran were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by Umar. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Qur’an about them:
When the polytheists of Arabia had been similarly subdued, it was proclaimed in At-Tawba that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution of their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, the declaration is made in the Qur’an:
After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries.^[38] Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the Companions launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to remain alive: to accept faith or to accept a life of subjugation by paying Jizya. None of these nations were considered to be adherents to polytheism, otherwise they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia..

Warfare in Muslim societies

History records instances of the "call for jihad" being invoked by Islamic leaders to 'legitimate' wars of conquest. The major imperial Muslim dynasties of Ottoman Turkey (Sunni) and Persia (Shia) each established systems of authority around traditional Islamic institutions. Part of this incorporation involved various interpretations of jihad. For example, in the Ottoman empire the concept of ghaza was promulgated as a sister obligation to jihad. The Ottoman ruler Mehmed II is said to have insisted on the conquest of Constantinople (Christian Byzantium) by justifying ''ghaza'' as a basic duty. Later Ottoman rulers would apply ''ghaza'' to justify military campaigns against the Persian Safavid dynasty. Thus both rival empires established a tradition that a ruler was only considered truly in charge when his armies has been sent into the field in the name of the true faith, usually against ''giaurs'' or heretics -often meaning each other-, often invoking some Sufi or other theological dispute, but rather driven by the universal craving for power, prestige, and if possible booty or territory.. The 'missionary' vocation of the Muslim dynasties was prestigious enough to be officially reflected in a formal title as part of a full ruler style- the Ottoman (many also had Ghazi as part of their name) Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421 - 1451), literally used Sultan ul-Mujahidin.
The so-called Fulbe jihad states and a few other jihad states in western Africa were established by a series of offensive wars.[3]
The commands inculcated in the Quran (in five suras from the period after Muhammad had established his power) on Muslims to put to the sword those who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (''Jizya'') were not interpreted as a general injunction on all Muslims constantly to make war on the infidels (originally only polytheists who claimed to be monotheists, not "People of the Book", Jesus is seen as the last of the precursors of the Prophet Muhammed; the word infidel had different historical uses, notably used by the Crusaders to refer to the Muslims they were fighting against). It was generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the Caliph (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which is vacant), such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states, always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate. Some proclaimed Jihad by claiming themselves as mahdi, e.g. the Sudanese Mahommed Ahmad in 1882.

Non-Muslim opinions

Barbary Pirates

The Barbary Pirates is what Europe and the United States called the 18th century Jihad^[39] ^[40]by Ottoman corsairs, an Islamic group that attacked as far north in Europe as Iceland.

Modern Views

The United States Department of Justice has used its own ''ad hoc'' definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:

★ "As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. In this context, jihad refers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons, governments deemed to be enemies of the fundamentalist version of Islam."^[41]

★ "As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking."^[42] in the indictment against several individuals including José Padilla.
Karen Armstrong in her book , writes:
:"Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle."^[43]
The Orientalist, Maxime Rodinson, wrote that "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle – two ingredients common to many ideological movements." (Maxime Rodinson. ''Muhammad''. Random House, Inc., New York, 2002. p. 351.)
The neologism 'jihadist' is sometimes used to describe militant Islamic groups, including but not restricted to Jihadist terrorism. The term is deemed offensive by many Muslims who see it as vilifying the more complex ideology of jihad.

References

1. John Esposito(2005), ''Islam: The Straight Path,'' pp.93
2. Esposito (2003), p.93
3.
4. R. Peters (1977), pp.3-5
5. Esposito (2002a), p.26
6. Human Rights in Islam, Chapter Four Maududi
7.
8. BBC - Religion & Ethics - Jihad: The internal Jihad
9. John K. Roth, ''Ethics'', p.775
10. The Crisis of Islam, Bernard Lewis 2001 Chapter 2
11. Al-Kitaab fii Ta^cllum al-^cArabiyya, Part II, , Mahmoud, Al-Batal, Georgetown University Press, 2006,
12. Documentation of "Greater Jihad" hadith
13. RE: Accusations on Shaykh Hamza Yusuf ]
14. http://www.abc.se/~m9783/n/dgjh_e.html
15. ''Jihad'' in the ''Hadith'', ''Peace with Realism'', April 16, 2006
16. Jihad
17. ''Understanding Jihad'', February, 2005
18. http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/jihad-nasr.htm
19. http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/books/jihad/3.htm
20. http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/greater_jihad.htm
21. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur'an (tafsir), commentary on verse 2:143.[1]
22. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi. ''Tafhim al-Qur'an''. Verse 8:66
23. Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 450-1
24. Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 479-80
25. ''Concept of Dar Al-Islam and Dar Al-Harb'', Islamonline.net.[2]
26. Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 40-2 / Ibid. vol. 3, pp. 151-160
27. Ibid., pp. 40-2 / Ibid., pp. 151-160
28. Ibid., pp. 43-8 / Ibn Sa‘ad, al-Tabaqatu’l-Kubra, vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1960), p. 28
29. Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 180-2
30. Deuteronomy, 20:10-14
31. Caesar E. Farah. , pp.52
32. Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 188-9
33. John Esposito(2005), ''Islam: The Straight Path'', p.15
34. Sahih Bukhari, 2730
35. Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-kharaj, Fasl fi’l-Fay wa al-Khiraj, (1302 AH), p. 42
36. Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Futuhu’l-Buldan, (Qumm: Manshurat al-Arummiyyah, 1404 AH), p. 73
37. Ibn Athir, Al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh, 1st ed., vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Beirut, 1965), p. 112
38. The names of these heads of state are: 1. Negus of Abyssinia, 2. Maqawqas of Egypt, 3. Khusro Parvez of Persia, 4. Qaysar of Rome, 5. Mundhar Ibn Sawi of Bahrain, 6. Hudhah Ibn ‘Ali of Yamamah, 7. Harith Ibn Abi Shamr of Damascus, 8. Jayfar of Amman, see Muhammad as a diplomat
39. Andrew C. Hess. The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453-1525. The American Historical Review, Vol. 75, No. 7 (Dec., 1970), pp. 1892-1919
40. H. W. Crocker III, Lepanto, 1571: The Battle That Saved Europe. Crisis Magazine. http://www.crisismagazine.com/december2006/croker.htm
41. http://www.milnet.com/2nd-indictment-hayat-dist-court.pdf
42. http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/padilla/uspad111705ind.pdf
43. The Concept of Jihad "Struggle" in Islam B.A. Robinson

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JIHAD

Usage of the term

Classifications of Jihad by Muslims

Sunni view of Jihad

Shi'a view of Jihad

Sufic view of Jihad

Jihad as warfare

Directive of warfare

The driving force

Ethical limits

Objectives of warfare

Against persecution

Supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula

Warfare in Muslim societies

Non-Muslim opinions

Barbary Pirates

Modern Views

References

See also

Political and military aspects

Similar concepts in other religions and in secularism

Philosophers of Jihad doctrine

Further reading

Sources and external links

Encyclopedic and various non-specialized sites

Islamic sites discussing Jihad

Non Islamic sites discussing Jihad

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