ISLAMIC SCIENCE
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:''This article is about the history of science in the Islamic civilisation between the 8th and 15th centuries.
:''For information on science in the context of Islam, see The relation between Islam and science.''
In the history of science, 'Islamic science' refers to the science developed under the Islamic civilisation between the 8th and 15th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age.[1] It is also known as 'Arabic science' due to most texts during this period being written in Arabic, the ''lingua franca'' of the Islamic civilization. Despite these names, not all scientists during this period were Muslim or Arab, as there were a number of notable non-Arab scientists, as well as some non-Muslim scientists, contributing to science in the Islamic civilization.
A number of modern scholars, notably Robert Briffault, Will Durant, Fielding H. Garrison, Alexander von Humboldt, Muhammad Iqbal, Abdus Salam, and Hossein Nasr, consider modern science to have begun from Muslim scientists who introduced the scientific method, including the modern empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry.
During the early Muslim conquests, the Muslim Arabs led by Khalid ibn al-Walid conquered the Sassanid Persian Empire and more than half of the Byzantine Roman Empire, establishing the Arab Empire across the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa, followed by further expansions across Pakistan, southern Italy and the Iberian Peninsula. As a result, the Islamic governments inherited "the knowledge and skills of the ancient Middle East, of Greece, of Persia and of India. They added new and important innovations from outside, such as positional numbering from Ancient India," as Bernard Lewis wrote in ''What Went Wrong?''
Another innovation was paper - originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese. The art of papermaking was obtained from two prisoners at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper mills being built in Samarkand and Baghdad. The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques using linen rags instead of mulberry bark.
The number of important and original Arabic works written on the mathematical sciences is much larger than the combined total of Latin and Greek works on the mathematical sciences.[2]
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on empiricism, experimentation, observation and quantification than any previous ancient civilization. Their new approach to scientific inquiry led to the development of the scientific method in the Islamic world. In particular, the empirical observations and quantitative experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) in his ''Book of Optics'' (1021) is seen as the beginning of the modern scientific method.David Agar (2001). Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD. University of Jyväskylä. Other leading exponents of the experimental method included Geber, Avicenna, and AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«. The most important development of the scientific method, the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, was introduced by Muslim scientists.
Rosanna Gorini writes:
Ibn al-Haytham, who is now known as the father of optics,[3] used the scientific method to obtain the results in his ''Book of Optics''. In particular, he combined observations, experiments and rational arguments to show that his modern intromission theory of vision, where rays of light are emitted from objects rather than from the eyes, is scientifically correct, and that the ancient emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid (where the eyes emit rays of light), and the ancient intromission theory supported by Aristotle (where objects emit physical particles to the eyes), were both wrong.[4] It is known that Roger Bacon (who was sometimes erroneously given credit for the scientific method) was familiar with Ibn al-Haytham's work.
Ibn al-Haytham's scientific method was very similar to the modern scientific method and consisted of the following procedures:[5]
#Observation
#Statement of problem
#Formulation of hypothesis
#Testing of hypothesis using experimentation
#Analysis of experimental results
#Interpretation of data and formulation of conclusion
#Publication of findings
The development of the scientific method is considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be ''pre-scientific''. Some have described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for this reason.[6]
In ''The Model of the Motions'', Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth.[7]
Robert Briffault wrote in ''The Making of Humanity'':
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote:
Oliver Joseph Lodge wrote in the ''Pioneers of Science'':
Muhammad Iqbal wrote in ''The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam'':
From the 12th century onwards, Islamic science and the numbers of Islamic scientists began declining. After the 13th century, the Islamic civilization would still produce occasional scientists but they became the exception, rather than the rule (see List of Islamic scholars). Some historians have recently come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 16th century, of which the work of Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) in Damascus is considered the most noteworthy example.[8][9]
One reason for the scientific decline can be traced back to the 10th century, when the orthodox school of Ash'ari theology challenged the more rational school of Mu'tazili theology. Other reasons include conflicts between the Sunni and Shia Muslims, and invasions by Crusaders and Mongols on Islamic lands between the 11th and 13th centuries, especially the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. The Mongols destroyed Muslim libraries, observatories, hospitals, and universities, culminating in the destruction of Baghdad, the Abbasid capital and intellectual centre, in 1258, which marked end of the Islamic Golden Age.[10]
By the 13th century, the more strict Ash'ari school replaced Mu'tazili thoughts in Islamic lands. That replacement and numerous wars and conflicts created a climate which made Islamic science less successful than before. With the fall of Islamic Spain in 1492, scientific and technological initiative generally passed to Christian Europe and led to what are now known as the European Renaissance and Scientific Revolution.
Contributing to the growth of European science was the major search by European scholars for new learning which they could only find among Muslims, especially in Islamic Spain and Sicily. These scholars translated new scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin.
One of the most productive translators in Spain was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin,
including Muhammad ibn MÅ«sÄ al-KhwÄrizmÄ«'s ''On Algebra and Almucabala'', Jabir ibn Aflah's ''Elementa astronomica'',
al-Kindi's ''On Optics'', Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn KathÄ«r al-FarghÄnÄ«'s ''On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions'', al-Farabi's ''On the Classification of the Sciences'',[11]
the chemical and medical works of al-Razi,
the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq,[12]
and the works of Arzachel, Jabir ibn Aflah, the BanÅ« MÅ«sÄ, AbÅ« KÄmil ShujÄ ibn Aslam, Abu al-Qasim, and Ibn al-Haytham (including the ''Book of Optics'').
Other Arabic works translated into Latin during the 12th century include the works of Muhammad ibn JÄbir al-HarrÄnÄ« al-BattÄnÄ« and Muhammad ibn MÅ«sÄ al-KhwÄrizmÄ« (including ''The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing''),
the works of Abu al-Qasim (including the ''al-Tasrif''),D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 3.
Muhammad al-Fazari's ''Great Sindhind'' (based on the ''Surya Siddhanta'' and the works of Brahmagupta),[13]
the works of al-Razi and Avicenna (including ''The Book of Healing'' and ''The Canon of Medicine''),[14]
the works of Averroes,
the works of Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Farabi, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn KathÄ«r al-FarghÄnÄ«, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan,[15]
the works of al-Kindi, Abraham bar Hiyya's ''Liber embadorum'', Ibn Sarabi's (Serapion Junior) ''De Simplicibus'',
the works of Qusta ibn Luqa,[16]
the works of Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, and al-Ghazali,Salah Zaimeche (2003). Aspects of the Islamic Influence on Science and Learning in the Christian West, p. 10. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
the works of Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi, including ''On the Motions of the Heavens'',[17]
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi's medical encyclopedia, ''The Complete Book of the Medical Art'',Jerome B. Bieber. Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources, Santa Fe Community College.
Abu Mashar's ''Introduction to Astrology'',[18]
the works of Maimonides, Ibn Zezla (Byngezla), Masawaiyh, Serapion, al-Qifti, and Albe'thar.[19]
AbÅ« KÄmil ShujÄ ibn Aslam's ''Algebra'',V. J. Katz, ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 291.
the chemical works of Geber, and the ''De Proprietatibus Elementorum'', an Arabic work on geology written by a pseudo-Aristotle. By the beginning of the 13th century, Mark of Toledo translated the Qur'an and various medical works.[20]
Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his ''Liber Abaci'' (1202).Jerome B. Bieber. Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources, Santa Fe Community College. The astronomical corrections to the Ptolemaic model made by al-Battani, Averroes, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (Tusi-couple) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model. Al-Kindi's (Alkindus) law of terrestrial gravity influenced Robert Hooke's law of celestial gravity, which in turn inspired Newton's law of universal gravitation. AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«'s ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' and ''Kitab al-qanun al-Mas’udi'' were translated into Latin as ''Indica'' and ''Canon Mas’udicus'' respectively. Ibn al-Nafis' commentary on the last part of Avicenna's ''The Canon of Medicine'' concerning remedies was translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago (d. 1522) and published in Europe in 1547. Ibn al-Nafis' ''Commentary on the Anatomy of Canon of Avicenna'', which first described pulmonary circulation, may have also also been translated into Latin and available in Europe around that time, and it may have had an influence on Michael Servetus and Realdo Colombo.[21] Translations of Omar Khayyám's works on algebra and geometry were later influential in the development of non-Euclidean geometry in Europe in the 18th century.[22] English translations of the Brethren of Purity's ''Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity'' and Arabic manuscripts of Ibn Miskawayh's ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' were available in European universities by the early 19th century, and these works likely had an influence on Charles Darwin, who was a student of Arabic, and his inception of Darwinism.
In the Middle Ages, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, Muslim scholars made significant advances in science, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, engineering, and many other fields. During this time, early Islamic philosophy developed and was often pivotal in scientific debates — key figures were usually scientists and philosophers.
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
In the applied sciences, a significant number of inventions and technologies were produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers, including inventors such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and especially al-Jazari, who is considered the father of robotics and the father of modern day engineering.[23] Some of the inventions produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers include the camera obscura, coffee, hang glider, hard soap, shampoo, distilled alcohol, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, filtration, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, crankshaft, valve, suction piston pump, mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, programmable humanoid robot, combination lock, quilting, pointed arch, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, frequency analysis, cryptanalysis, three-course meal, glasses, Persian carpet, modern cheque, celestial globe, incendiary devices, rocket, torpedo, and royal pleasure gardens.
Islamic astrology, in Arabic ''ilm al-nujum''is the study of the heavens by early Muslims. In early Arabic sources, ''ilm al-nujum'' was used to refer to both astronomy and astrology. In medieval sources, however, a clear distinction was made between ''ilm al-nujum'' (science of the stars) or ''ilm al-falak'' (science of the celestial orbs), referring to astrology, and'' ilm al-haya'' (science of the figure of the heavens), referring to astronomy. Both fields were rooted in Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions. Despite consistent critiques of astrology by scientists and religious scholars, astrological prognostications required a fair amount of exact scientific knowledge and thus gave partial incentive for the study and development of astronomy.
In astronomy, the work of the Greek-speaking Egyptian scholar Ptolemy, particularly the ''Almagest'', and the Indian work of Brahmagupta, were significantly refined over the years by Muslim astronomers. The astronomical tables of Al-Khwarizmi and of Abu al-Qasim Maslama b. Ahmad (al-Majriti) served as important sources of information for Latinized European thinkers rediscovering the works of astronomy, where extensive interest in astrology was discouraged.
From the 11th century, Muslim astronomers began questioning the Ptolemaic system, beginning with Ibn al-Haytham, and they were the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena, beginning with AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, Hasanuddin University. Many of them made changes and corrections to the Ptolemaic model within a geocentric framework. In particular, the corrections of al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (Tusi-couple), Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model.[24][25] Several Muslim astronomers also discussed the possibility of a heliocentric model with elliptical orbits, such as Ibn al-Haytham, AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, Abu Said Sinjari, 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini, and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi.[26]
Other developments in astronomy include al-Biruni's discovery of the Milky Way galaxy being a collection of numerous nebulous stars, and the development of a planetary model without any epicycles by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).[27] The optical writings of Ibn al-Haytham are reported to have laid the foundations for the later European development of telescopic astronomy.[28]
In biology and zoology, Muslim biologists developed theories on evolution and natural selection which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. John William Draper, a contemporary of Charles Darwin, considered the "Mohammedan theory of evolution" to be developed "much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to inorganic or mineral things." According to al-Khazini, ideas on evolution were widespread among "common people" in the Islamic world by the 12th century.[29]
The first Muslim biologist to develop a theory on evolution was al-Jahiz (781-869). He wrote on the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and he first described the struggle for existence and an early form of natural selection.[30][31] Ibn al-Haytham wrote a book in which he argued for evolutionism (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, such as Ibn Miskawayh, the Brethren of Purity, al-Khazini, AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, Nasir al-Din Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun, discussed and developed these ideas. Muslim biologists also made significant advances in the field of botany. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the Renaissance and appear to have had an impact on Western science.
Ibn Miskawayh's ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' and the Brethren of Purity's ''Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity'' (''The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'') expressed evolutionary ideas on how species evolved from matter, into vapor, and then water, then minerals, then plants, then animals, then apes, and then humans. These works were known in Europe and likely had an influence on Darwinism.Muhammad Hamidullah and Afzal Iqbal (1993), ''The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity'', p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.
Main articles: Alchemy (Islam)
The 9th century chemist, Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan), is considered the father of chemistry,[32][33]Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''The Independent'', 11 March 2006. for introducing the first experimental scientific method for chemistry, as well as the alembic, still, retort, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, and filtration.
Al-Kindi was the first to debunk the theory of the transmutation of metals,[34] followed by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«[35] and Avicenna.[36] Avicenna also invented steam distillation and produced the first essential oils, which led to the development of aromatherapy. Al-Razi first distilled petroleum, invented kerosene and kerosene lamps, soap bars and modern recipes for soap, and antiseptics. Alexander von Humboldt regarded the Muslim chemists as the founders of chemistry.[37]
Will Durant wrote in ''The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith'':
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':
Muslim scientists, notably AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, made a number of contributions to the Earth sciences. In particular, Biruni is regarded as the father of geodesy for his important contributions to the field,[38] along with his significant contributions to geography and geology.
Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the geology of India:
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'':
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':
In geology, Avicenna hypothesized on two causes of mountains in ''The Book of Healing''. In cartography, the Piri Reis map drawn by the Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis in 1513, was one of the earliest world maps to include the Americas, and perhaps the first to include Antarctica. His map of the world was considered the most accurate in the 16th century.
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson wrote in the ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'':
Al-Khwarizmi (780-850), from whose name the word algorithm derives, contributed significantly to algebra, which is named after his book, ''Kitab al-Jabr'', the first book on elementary algebra.[39] He also introduced what is now known as Arabic numerals, which originally came from India, though Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Al-Kindi (801-873) was a pioneer in cryptanalysis and cryptology. He gave the first known recorded explanations of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis in ''A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''.[40][41]
The first known proof by mathematical induction appears in a book written by Al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum of integral cubes.[42] The historian of mathematics, F. Woepcke,[43] praised Al-Karaji for being "the first who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus." Ibn al-Haytham was the first mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers, and using the method of induction, he developed a method for determining the general formula for the sum of any integral powers, which was fundamental to the development of integral calculus.[44] The 11th century poet-mathematician Omar Khayyám was the first to find general geometric solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (1135-1213) found algebraic and numerical solutions to cubic equations and was the first to discover the derivative of cubic polynomials, an important result in differential calculus.[45]
In the mechanics field of physics, Muhammad ibn Musa (800-873), in his ''Astral Motion'' and ''The Force of Attraction'', was the first to discover that there was a force of attraction between heavenly bodies,[46] foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation.[47] ThÄbit ibn Qurra (836-901) rejected the Peripatetic and Aristotelian notions of a "natural place" for each element. He instead proposed a theory of motion in which both the upward and downward motions are caused by weight, and that the order of the universe is a result of two competing attractions (''jadhb''): one of these being "between the and celestial elements", and the other being "between all parts of each element separately".[48] Al-Kindi (801-873) described an early concept of relativity, which some see as a precursor to the later theory of relativity developed by Albert Einstein in the 20th century. Like Einstein, al-Kindi held that the physical world and physical phenomena are relative, that time, space, motion and bodies are all relative to each other and not independant or absolute, and that they are relative to other objects and to the observer.[49]
Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039) discussed the theory of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity and he discovered that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics".[50] Ibn al-Haytham also discovered the law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, when he stated that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion.Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, Routledge, New York, London. He also discovered the concept of momentum, part of Newton's second law of motion.[51]
Nobel Prize winning physicist Abdus Salam wrote the following on Ibn al-Haytham:
Avicenna (980-1037) discovered the concept of momentum, when he referred to impetus as being proportional to weight times velocity, a precursor to the concept of momentum in Newton's second law of motion.A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn SÄ«nÄ and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '500' (1), p. 477–482:
He is thus considered the father of the fundamental concept of momentum in physics.[52] His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of inertia in Newton's first law of motion. AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (973-1048) was the first to realize that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion.
In 1121, al-Khazini, in ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', was the first to propose that the gravity and gravitational potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth. This phenomenon was not proven until Newton's law of universal gravitation centuries later. Al-Khazini was also one of the first to clearly differentiate between force, mass, and weight, and he showed awareness of the weight of the air and of its decrease in density with altitude, and discovered that there was greater density of water when nearer to the Earth's centre.[53]
Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) (d. 1138) was the first to state that there is always a reaction force for every force exerted, a precursor to Gottfried Leibniz's idea of force which underlies Newton's third law of motion.[54] His theory of motion had an important influence on later physicists like Galileo Galilei.[55] Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (1080-1165) was the first to negate Aristotle's idea that a constant force produces uniform motion, as he realized that a force applied continuously produces acceleration, a fundamental law of classical mechanics and an early foreshadowing of Newton's second law of motion.[56] Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of velocity.[57] Averroes (1126–1198) was the first to define and measure force as "the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body"[58] and the first to correctly argue "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass."[59]
Main articles: Islamic medicine
Muslim physicians made many significant advances and contributions to medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences. Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, which later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East.George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science''.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
Al-Razi (Rhazes) (865-925) recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. His ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', which introduced measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe. Al-Kindi wrote ''De Gradibus'', in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness.[60]
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern surgery,[61] wrote the ''Kitab al-Tasrif'' (1000), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia which was taught at Muslim and European medical schools until the 17th century. He invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '2' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press. as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[62] bone saw, and plaster.[63]
Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history, wrote ''The Canon of Medicine'' (1020) and ''The Book of Healing'' (11th century), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European universities until the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[64] the discovery of the contagious nature of diseases, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments, as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.
In 1021, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his ''Book of Optics'' (1021). In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe human blood circulation and pulmonary circulation. The ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') of Mansur ibn Ilyas (c. 1390) contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[65] Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the introduction of microbiology, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology), as well as the invention of the injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century Iraq, the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy by the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal and chemical substances.[66]
In the optics field of physics, Ibn Sahl (c. 940-1000), a mathematician and physicist connected with the court of Baghdad, wrote a treatise ''On Burning Mirrors and Lenses'' in 984 in which he set out his understanding of how curved mirrors and lenses bend and focus light. Ibn Sahl is now credited with first discovering the law of refraction, usually called Snell's law.[67]R. Rashed, "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses", ''Isis'' '81', p. 464–491, 1990. He used this law to work out the shapes of lenses that focus light with no geometric aberrations, known as anaclastic lenses.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) (965-1039), the father of optics and the pioneer of the scientific method, in his ''Book of Optics'', developed a broad theory of light and optics that explained vision, using geometry and anatomy, which stated that each point on an illuminated area or object radiates light rays in every direction, but that only one ray from each point, which strikes the eye perpendicularly, can be seen. The other rays strike at different angles and are not seen. He used the example of the camera obscura and pinhole camera, which produces an inverted image, to support his argument. This contradicted Ptolemy's theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. Alhacen held light rays to be streams of minute particles that travelled at a finite speed. He improved accurately described the refraction of light, and discovered the laws of refraction.
He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colours. His major work ''Kitab al-Manazir'' was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages, as well as his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, and the rainbow. He also attempted to explain binocular vision and the moon illusion. Through these extensive researches on optics, he is considered the father of modern optics.
Ibn al-Haytham also correctly argued that we see objects because the sun's rays of light, which he believed to be streams of tiny particles traveling in straight lines, are reflected from objects into our eyes. He understood that light must travel at a large but finite velocity, and that refraction is caused by the velocity being different in different substances. He also studied spherical and parabolic mirrors, and understood how refraction by a lens will allow images to be focused and magnification to take place. He understood mathematically why a spherical mirror produces aberration.
Robert S. Elliot wrote the following on Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen):
Avicenna (980-1037) agreed that the speed of light is finite, as he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."[68] AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (973-1048) also agreed that light has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound. Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311) and KamÄl al-DÄ«n al-FÄrisÄ« (1260-1320) gave the first correct explanations for the rainbow phenomenon.[69]
In psychology, the Arab physician Al-Razi (Rhazes) (865-925) was the first to study psychotherapy and made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'', which presented definitions, symptoms, and treatments for problems related to mental health and mental illness. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions.
Ibn al-Haytham is considered the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '16' (2). for his pioneering work on the on the psychology of visual perception in the ''Book of Optics''. In Book III of the ''Book of Optics'', Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. He pointed out that personal experience has an affect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. He explained possible errors in vision in detail, and as an example, describes how a small child with less experience may have more difficulty interpreting what he/she sees. He also gives an example of an adult that can make mistakes in vision because of how one's experience suggests that he/she is seeing one thing, when he/she is really seeing something else.Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
Ibn al-Haytham was also the first to combine physics and psychology to form psychophysics, and his investigations and experiments on psychology and visual perception included sensation, variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colours, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.
Significant contributions were made to the social sciences in the Islamic civilization.
AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (973-1048) has been described as "the first anthropologist".Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '60', p. 9-10. He wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and South Asia. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.[70]
Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his Islamic anthropology.[71] Biruni is also regarded as the father of Indology.[63] Al-Saghani (d. 990) wrote some of the earliest comments on the history of science, which included a comparison between the "ancients" (including the ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks and Indians) and the "modern scholars" (the Muslim scientists of his time).[73] Al-Muqaddasi (b. 945) also made contributions to the social sciences.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) is regarded as the father of demography,H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '1'. cultural history,[74] historiography,[75] the philosophy of history,Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '12' (3). sociology, and the social sciences,[76] and is viewed as one of the forerunners of modern economics. He is best known for his ''Muqaddimah'' (Latinized as ''Prolegomenon''). Some of the ideas he introduced in the ''Muqaddimah'' include social philosophy, social conflict theories, social cohesion, social capital, social networks, dialectics, the Laffer curve, the historical method, systemic bias, the rise and fall of civilizations, feedback loops, systems theory, and corporate social responsibility.
Franz Rosenthal wrote in the ''History of Muslim Historiography'':
:''Main article: Historiography of early Islam - Historiography of Islamic science
The history of science in the Islamic world, like all history, is filled with questions of interpretation. Historians of science generally consider that the study of Islamic science, like all history, must be seen within the particular circumstances of time and place. A. I. Sabra opened a recent overview of Arabic science by noting, "I trust no one would wish to contest the proposition that all of history is local history ... and the history of science is no exception."[77]
Some scholars avoid such local historical approaches and seek to identify essential relations between Islam and science that apply at all times and places. The Persian philosopher and historian of science, Seyyed Hossein Nasr saw a more positive connection in "an Islamic science that was spiritual and antisecular" which "point[ed] the way to a new 'Islamic science' that would avoid the dehumanizing and despiritualizing mistakes of Western science."[78][79] Some historians of science, however, question the value of drawing boundaries that label the sciences, and the scientists who practice them, in specific cultural, civilizational, or linguistic terms.[80]
★ Timeline of Islamic science and technology
★ List of Muslim scientists
★
★ List of Arab scientists and scholars
★
★ List of Iranian scientists and scholars
★ Islamic Golden Age
★
★ Early Islamic philosophy
★
★ Inventions in the Muslim world
★
★ Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
★ Islamic studies
★ Latin translations of the 12th century
★ Scholasticism
1. Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence, , A. I., Sabra, Isis, 1996
2. N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '54' (2), p. 299-328 [320].
3. R. L. Verma "Al-Hazen: father of modern optics", ''Al-Arabi'', 8 (1969): 12-13.
4. D. C. Lindberg, ''Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler'', (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 60-7.
5. Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. (cf. Bradley Steffens, "Who Was the First Scientist?", ''Ezine Articles''.)
6. Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.
7. Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '17', p. 7-55 [35-36]. Cambridge University Press.
8. George Saliba, ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', (New York: New York University, 1994), p.vii: "The main thesis, for which this collection of articles cam be used as evidence, is the one claiming that the period often called a period of decline in Islamic intellectual history was, scientifically speaking from the point of view of astronomy, a very productive period in which astronomical thories of the highest order were produced."
9. David A. King, "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", ''Isis'', 74 (1983):531-555
10. Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.
11. For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974) ''A Source Book in Medieval Science'', (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35-8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century," ''Science in Context'', 14 (2001): at 249-288, at pp. 275-281.
12. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 6.
13. G. G. Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock'', p. 306.
14. M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 444-6, 451
15. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 4-5.
16. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 5.
17. ''Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexicon''
18. Charles Burnett, ed. ''Adelard of Bath, Conversations with His Nephew,'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. xi.
19. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 4.
20. M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 429, 455
21. Anatomy and Physiology, Islamic Medical Manuscripts, United States National Library of Medicine.
22. D. S. Kasir (1931). ''The Algebra of Omar Khayyam'', p. 6-7. Teacher's College Press, Columbia University, New York.
23. 1000 Years of Knowledge Rediscovered at Ibn Battuta Mall, MTE Studios.
24. M. Gill (2005). Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?
25. Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''Saudi Aramco World'', p. 2-16.
26. A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.
27. Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", ''Isis'' '63' (1), p. 39-47 [40-41].
28. O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", ''Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets'' '6', pp. 4-11.
29. John William Draper (1878). ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 154-155, 237. ISBN 1603030964.
30. Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '84' (1), p. 71-123.
31. Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", ''The Islamic Quarterly''. London.
32. John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
33. Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
34. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: Routledge.
35. Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", ''Speculum'' '40' (4), p. 744-746.
36. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196-197.
37. Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
38. H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '1'.
39. Eglash (1999), p.61
40. Simon Singh, ''The Code Book'', p. 14-20.
41. Al-Kindi, Cryptgraphy, Codebreaking and Ciphers
42. Victor J. Katz (1998). ''History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 255-259. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0321016181.
43. F. Woepcke (1853). ''Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi''. Paris.
44. Victor J. Katz (1995). "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", ''Mathematics Magazine'' '68' (3), p. 163-174.
45. J. L. Berggren (1990). "Innovation and Tradition in Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Muadalat", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '110' (2), p. 304-309.
46. K. A. Waheed (1978). ''Islam and The Origins of Modern Science'', p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore.
47. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.
48. Mohammed Abattouy (2001). "Greek Mechanics in Arabic Context: Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Isfizarı and the Arabic Traditions of Aristotelian and Euclidean Mechanics", ''Science in Context'' '14', p. 205-206. Cambridge University Press.
49. The Theory of Relativity, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2003.
50. Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). ''To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo'', p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
51. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "The achievements of Ibn Sina in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy", ''Islam & Science'', December 2003.
52. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.
53. Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv, p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.
54. Shlomo Pines (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in ''Mélanges Alexandre Koyré'', I, 442-468 [462, 468], Paris.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '64' (4), p. 521-546 [543].)
55. Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '12' (2), p. 163-193.
56.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '64' (4), p. 521-546 [528].)
57. A. C. Crombie, ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.
58. Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '12' (3), p. 375-422 [375].
59. Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '12' (3), p. 375-422 [380].
60. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. Routledge, London.
61. A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurologÃa'' '34' (9), p. 877-892.
62. Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '4' (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)
63. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
64. Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '62' (1), p. 169-170.
65. H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138.
66. S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '51' (1-2), p. 47-50.
67. K. B. Wolf, "Geometry and dynamics in refracting systems", ''European Journal of Physics'' '16', p. 14-20, 1995.
68. George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 710.
69.
70. J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '59' (3), p. 389-403.
71. Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '68' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.
72. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
73. Franz Rosenthal (1950). "Al-Asturlabi and as-Samaw'al on Scientific Progress", ''Osiris'' '9', p. 555-564 [559].
74. Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '5' (1), p. 61-70.
75. Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
76. Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '56' (1), p. 25.
77. A. I. Sabra, Situating Arab Science: Locality versus Essence," ''Isis'', 87(1996):654-70; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages," (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000), pp. 215-231.
78. F. Jamil Ragep, "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science," ''Osiris'', topical issue on ''Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions'', n.s. 16(2001):49-50, note 3
79. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam
80. George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?
★ Campbell, Donald (2001). ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages''. Routledge. (Reprint of the London, 1926 edition). ISBN 0415231884.
★ d'Alverny, Marie-Thérèse. "Translations and Translators", in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, eds., ''Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century'', p. 421-462. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1982.
★ African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design, , Ron, Eglash, Rutgers University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8135-2614-0
★ The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, , John M., Hobson, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0521547245
★ The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, , Toby E., Huff, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0521529948
★ Joseph, George G. (2000). ''The Crest of the Peacock''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691006598.
★ Katz, Victor J. (1998). ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction''. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0321016181.
★ Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball, , Trevor Harvey, Levere, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8018-6610-3
★ Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History, , Sidney W., Mintz, Penguin (Non-Classics), 1986, ISBN 978-0140092332
★ The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, , William D., Phillips, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 052144652X
★ Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, , Howard R., Turner, University of Texas Press, 1997, ISBN 0292781490
★ Studies in the exact sciences in medieval Islam, , Ali Abdullah al-, Daffa, Wiley, 1984, ISBN 0471903205
★ The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, , Jan P., Hogendijk, MIT Press, 2003, ISBN 0-262-19482-1 Reviewed by Robert G. Morrison at [1]
★ Hill, Donald Routledge, ''Islamic Science And Engineering'', Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
★ Toby E. Huff, ''The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 2nd edition 2003. ISBN 0-521-52994-8. Reviewed by George Saliba at [2]
★ Toby E. Huff, "Science and Metaphysics in the Three Religions of the Books", ''Intellectual Discourse'', 8, #2 (2000): 173-198.
★ The Arabic Heritage in the Exact Sciences, , Edward S., Kennedy, Al-Abhath, 1970
★ Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, , Edward S., Kennedy, Syracuse University Press, 1983, ISBN 0815660677
★ Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, , Roshdi, Rashed, , 1996, ISBN 0415020638
★ Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, , George, Saliba, The MIT Press, 2007, ISBN 0262195577
★ Islamic Science : An Illustrated Study, , , Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Kazi Publications, 1976, ISBN 1567443125
★ Science & Civilization in Islam, , , Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Texts Society, 2003, ISBN 1903682401
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '1': Quranwissenschaften, Hadit, Geschichte, Fiqh, Dogmatik, Mystik, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004041532
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '2': Poesie. Bis CA. 430 H, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004031316
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '3': Medizin-Pharmazie Zoologie-Tierheilkunde, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004031316
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '4': Alchimie-Chemie Botanik-Agrikultur, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004020098
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '5': Mathematik, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004041532
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '6': Astronomie, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004058788
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '7': Astrologie-Meteorologie Und Verwandtes, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004061592
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '8': Lexikographie. Bis CA. 430 H, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004068678
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '9': Grammatik. Bis CA. 430 H, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004072616
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 'X': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 1, , Fuat, Sezgin, , 2000,
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 'XI': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 2, , Fuat, Sezgin, , 2000,
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 'XII': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 3, , Fuat, Sezgin, , 2000,
★ Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre
Werke, , Heinrich, Suter, , 1900,
★ Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?
★ Habibi, Golareh. Review article, ''Science Creative Quarterly''.
★ An interactive guide to Muslim scientists whose multi-disciplinary contributions sparked the flame of learning and productivity
★ Islam, Knowledge, and Science
★ History of Science and Technology in Islam
★ Islamic Civilization
★ The Islamization of science or the marginalization of Islam
★ Muslimheritage
★ 1001inventions
★ Science and religion in Islam
:''For information on science in the context of Islam, see The relation between Islam and science.''
In the history of science, 'Islamic science' refers to the science developed under the Islamic civilisation between the 8th and 15th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age.[1] It is also known as 'Arabic science' due to most texts during this period being written in Arabic, the ''lingua franca'' of the Islamic civilization. Despite these names, not all scientists during this period were Muslim or Arab, as there were a number of notable non-Arab scientists, as well as some non-Muslim scientists, contributing to science in the Islamic civilization.
A number of modern scholars, notably Robert Briffault, Will Durant, Fielding H. Garrison, Alexander von Humboldt, Muhammad Iqbal, Abdus Salam, and Hossein Nasr, consider modern science to have begun from Muslim scientists who introduced the scientific method, including the modern empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry.
Overview
Rise
During the early Muslim conquests, the Muslim Arabs led by Khalid ibn al-Walid conquered the Sassanid Persian Empire and more than half of the Byzantine Roman Empire, establishing the Arab Empire across the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa, followed by further expansions across Pakistan, southern Italy and the Iberian Peninsula. As a result, the Islamic governments inherited "the knowledge and skills of the ancient Middle East, of Greece, of Persia and of India. They added new and important innovations from outside, such as positional numbering from Ancient India," as Bernard Lewis wrote in ''What Went Wrong?''
Another innovation was paper - originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese. The art of papermaking was obtained from two prisoners at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper mills being built in Samarkand and Baghdad. The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques using linen rags instead of mulberry bark.
The number of important and original Arabic works written on the mathematical sciences is much larger than the combined total of Latin and Greek works on the mathematical sciences.[2]
Scientific method
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was a universal genius who has been described as the "father of optics", the "pioneer of the modern scientific method", the "founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology", and the "first scientist".
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on empiricism, experimentation, observation and quantification than any previous ancient civilization. Their new approach to scientific inquiry led to the development of the scientific method in the Islamic world. In particular, the empirical observations and quantitative experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) in his ''Book of Optics'' (1021) is seen as the beginning of the modern scientific method.David Agar (2001). Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD. University of Jyväskylä. Other leading exponents of the experimental method included Geber, Avicenna, and AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«. The most important development of the scientific method, the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, was introduced by Muslim scientists.
Rosanna Gorini writes:
Ibn al-Haytham, who is now known as the father of optics,[3] used the scientific method to obtain the results in his ''Book of Optics''. In particular, he combined observations, experiments and rational arguments to show that his modern intromission theory of vision, where rays of light are emitted from objects rather than from the eyes, is scientifically correct, and that the ancient emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid (where the eyes emit rays of light), and the ancient intromission theory supported by Aristotle (where objects emit physical particles to the eyes), were both wrong.[4] It is known that Roger Bacon (who was sometimes erroneously given credit for the scientific method) was familiar with Ibn al-Haytham's work.
Ibn al-Haytham's scientific method was very similar to the modern scientific method and consisted of the following procedures:[5]
#Observation
#Statement of problem
#Formulation of hypothesis
#Testing of hypothesis using experimentation
#Analysis of experimental results
#Interpretation of data and formulation of conclusion
#Publication of findings
The development of the scientific method is considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be ''pre-scientific''. Some have described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for this reason.[6]
In ''The Model of the Motions'', Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth.[7]
Robert Briffault wrote in ''The Making of Humanity'':
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote:
Oliver Joseph Lodge wrote in the ''Pioneers of Science'':
Muhammad Iqbal wrote in ''The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam'':
Decline
From the 12th century onwards, Islamic science and the numbers of Islamic scientists began declining. After the 13th century, the Islamic civilization would still produce occasional scientists but they became the exception, rather than the rule (see List of Islamic scholars). Some historians have recently come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 16th century, of which the work of Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) in Damascus is considered the most noteworthy example.[8][9]
One reason for the scientific decline can be traced back to the 10th century, when the orthodox school of Ash'ari theology challenged the more rational school of Mu'tazili theology. Other reasons include conflicts between the Sunni and Shia Muslims, and invasions by Crusaders and Mongols on Islamic lands between the 11th and 13th centuries, especially the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. The Mongols destroyed Muslim libraries, observatories, hospitals, and universities, culminating in the destruction of Baghdad, the Abbasid capital and intellectual centre, in 1258, which marked end of the Islamic Golden Age.[10]
By the 13th century, the more strict Ash'ari school replaced Mu'tazili thoughts in Islamic lands. That replacement and numerous wars and conflicts created a climate which made Islamic science less successful than before. With the fall of Islamic Spain in 1492, scientific and technological initiative generally passed to Christian Europe and led to what are now known as the European Renaissance and Scientific Revolution.
Influence on European science
Contributing to the growth of European science was the major search by European scholars for new learning which they could only find among Muslims, especially in Islamic Spain and Sicily. These scholars translated new scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin.
One of the most productive translators in Spain was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin,
including Muhammad ibn MÅ«sÄ al-KhwÄrizmÄ«'s ''On Algebra and Almucabala'', Jabir ibn Aflah's ''Elementa astronomica'',
al-Kindi's ''On Optics'', Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn KathÄ«r al-FarghÄnÄ«'s ''On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions'', al-Farabi's ''On the Classification of the Sciences'',[11]
the chemical and medical works of al-Razi,
the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq,[12]
and the works of Arzachel, Jabir ibn Aflah, the BanÅ« MÅ«sÄ, AbÅ« KÄmil ShujÄ ibn Aslam, Abu al-Qasim, and Ibn al-Haytham (including the ''Book of Optics'').
Other Arabic works translated into Latin during the 12th century include the works of Muhammad ibn JÄbir al-HarrÄnÄ« al-BattÄnÄ« and Muhammad ibn MÅ«sÄ al-KhwÄrizmÄ« (including ''The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing''),
the works of Abu al-Qasim (including the ''al-Tasrif''),D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 3.
Muhammad al-Fazari's ''Great Sindhind'' (based on the ''Surya Siddhanta'' and the works of Brahmagupta),[13]
the works of al-Razi and Avicenna (including ''The Book of Healing'' and ''The Canon of Medicine''),[14]
the works of Averroes,
the works of Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Farabi, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn KathÄ«r al-FarghÄnÄ«, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan,[15]
the works of al-Kindi, Abraham bar Hiyya's ''Liber embadorum'', Ibn Sarabi's (Serapion Junior) ''De Simplicibus'',
the works of Qusta ibn Luqa,[16]
the works of Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, and al-Ghazali,Salah Zaimeche (2003). Aspects of the Islamic Influence on Science and Learning in the Christian West, p. 10. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
the works of Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi, including ''On the Motions of the Heavens'',[17]
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi's medical encyclopedia, ''The Complete Book of the Medical Art'',Jerome B. Bieber. Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources, Santa Fe Community College.
Abu Mashar's ''Introduction to Astrology'',[18]
the works of Maimonides, Ibn Zezla (Byngezla), Masawaiyh, Serapion, al-Qifti, and Albe'thar.[19]
AbÅ« KÄmil ShujÄ ibn Aslam's ''Algebra'',V. J. Katz, ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 291.
the chemical works of Geber, and the ''De Proprietatibus Elementorum'', an Arabic work on geology written by a pseudo-Aristotle. By the beginning of the 13th century, Mark of Toledo translated the Qur'an and various medical works.[20]
Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his ''Liber Abaci'' (1202).Jerome B. Bieber. Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources, Santa Fe Community College. The astronomical corrections to the Ptolemaic model made by al-Battani, Averroes, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (Tusi-couple) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model. Al-Kindi's (Alkindus) law of terrestrial gravity influenced Robert Hooke's law of celestial gravity, which in turn inspired Newton's law of universal gravitation. AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«'s ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' and ''Kitab al-qanun al-Mas’udi'' were translated into Latin as ''Indica'' and ''Canon Mas’udicus'' respectively. Ibn al-Nafis' commentary on the last part of Avicenna's ''The Canon of Medicine'' concerning remedies was translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago (d. 1522) and published in Europe in 1547. Ibn al-Nafis' ''Commentary on the Anatomy of Canon of Avicenna'', which first described pulmonary circulation, may have also also been translated into Latin and available in Europe around that time, and it may have had an influence on Michael Servetus and Realdo Colombo.[21] Translations of Omar Khayyám's works on algebra and geometry were later influential in the development of non-Euclidean geometry in Europe in the 18th century.[22] English translations of the Brethren of Purity's ''Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity'' and Arabic manuscripts of Ibn Miskawayh's ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' were available in European universities by the early 19th century, and these works likely had an influence on Charles Darwin, who was a student of Arabic, and his inception of Darwinism.
Fields
The valve-operated reciprocating suction piston pump of al-Jazari, the father of modern day engineering.
In the Middle Ages, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, Muslim scholars made significant advances in science, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, engineering, and many other fields. During this time, early Islamic philosophy developed and was often pivotal in scientific debates — key figures were usually scientists and philosophers.
Applied sciences
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
In the applied sciences, a significant number of inventions and technologies were produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers, including inventors such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and especially al-Jazari, who is considered the father of robotics and the father of modern day engineering.[23] Some of the inventions produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers include the camera obscura, coffee, hang glider, hard soap, shampoo, distilled alcohol, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, filtration, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, crankshaft, valve, suction piston pump, mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, programmable humanoid robot, combination lock, quilting, pointed arch, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, frequency analysis, cryptanalysis, three-course meal, glasses, Persian carpet, modern cheque, celestial globe, incendiary devices, rocket, torpedo, and royal pleasure gardens.
Astrology
Islamic astrology, in Arabic ''ilm al-nujum''is the study of the heavens by early Muslims. In early Arabic sources, ''ilm al-nujum'' was used to refer to both astronomy and astrology. In medieval sources, however, a clear distinction was made between ''ilm al-nujum'' (science of the stars) or ''ilm al-falak'' (science of the celestial orbs), referring to astrology, and'' ilm al-haya'' (science of the figure of the heavens), referring to astronomy. Both fields were rooted in Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions. Despite consistent critiques of astrology by scientists and religious scholars, astrological prognostications required a fair amount of exact scientific knowledge and thus gave partial incentive for the study and development of astronomy.
Nasir al-Din Tusi was a polymath who resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system with the Tusi-couple, which played an important role in Copernican heliocentrism.
Astronomy
In astronomy, the work of the Greek-speaking Egyptian scholar Ptolemy, particularly the ''Almagest'', and the Indian work of Brahmagupta, were significantly refined over the years by Muslim astronomers. The astronomical tables of Al-Khwarizmi and of Abu al-Qasim Maslama b. Ahmad (al-Majriti) served as important sources of information for Latinized European thinkers rediscovering the works of astronomy, where extensive interest in astrology was discouraged.
From the 11th century, Muslim astronomers began questioning the Ptolemaic system, beginning with Ibn al-Haytham, and they were the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena, beginning with AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, Hasanuddin University. Many of them made changes and corrections to the Ptolemaic model within a geocentric framework. In particular, the corrections of al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (Tusi-couple), Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model.[24][25] Several Muslim astronomers also discussed the possibility of a heliocentric model with elliptical orbits, such as Ibn al-Haytham, AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, Abu Said Sinjari, 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini, and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi.[26]
Other developments in astronomy include al-Biruni's discovery of the Milky Way galaxy being a collection of numerous nebulous stars, and the development of a planetary model without any epicycles by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).[27] The optical writings of Ibn al-Haytham are reported to have laid the foundations for the later European development of telescopic astronomy.[28]
Biology
In biology and zoology, Muslim biologists developed theories on evolution and natural selection which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. John William Draper, a contemporary of Charles Darwin, considered the "Mohammedan theory of evolution" to be developed "much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to inorganic or mineral things." According to al-Khazini, ideas on evolution were widespread among "common people" in the Islamic world by the 12th century.[29]
The first Muslim biologist to develop a theory on evolution was al-Jahiz (781-869). He wrote on the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and he first described the struggle for existence and an early form of natural selection.[30][31] Ibn al-Haytham wrote a book in which he argued for evolutionism (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, such as Ibn Miskawayh, the Brethren of Purity, al-Khazini, AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, Nasir al-Din Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun, discussed and developed these ideas. Muslim biologists also made significant advances in the field of botany. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the Renaissance and appear to have had an impact on Western science.
Ibn Miskawayh's ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' and the Brethren of Purity's ''Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity'' (''The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'') expressed evolutionary ideas on how species evolved from matter, into vapor, and then water, then minerals, then plants, then animals, then apes, and then humans. These works were known in Europe and likely had an influence on Darwinism.Muhammad Hamidullah and Afzal Iqbal (1993), ''The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity'', p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.
Chemistry
Main articles: Alchemy (Islam)
Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) was a polymath who is regarded as the father of chemistry and a founder of the perfume industry.
The 9th century chemist, Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan), is considered the father of chemistry,[32][33]Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''The Independent'', 11 March 2006. for introducing the first experimental scientific method for chemistry, as well as the alembic, still, retort, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, and filtration.
Al-Kindi was the first to debunk the theory of the transmutation of metals,[34] followed by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«[35] and Avicenna.[36] Avicenna also invented steam distillation and produced the first essential oils, which led to the development of aromatherapy. Al-Razi first distilled petroleum, invented kerosene and kerosene lamps, soap bars and modern recipes for soap, and antiseptics. Alexander von Humboldt regarded the Muslim chemists as the founders of chemistry.[37]
Will Durant wrote in ''The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith'':
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':
Earth sciences
AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« was a universal genius who is regarded as the father of Indology, the father of geodesy, "the first anthropologist" and one of the first geologists.
Muslim scientists, notably AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, made a number of contributions to the Earth sciences. In particular, Biruni is regarded as the father of geodesy for his important contributions to the field,[38] along with his significant contributions to geography and geology.
Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the geology of India:
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'':
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':
In geology, Avicenna hypothesized on two causes of mountains in ''The Book of Healing''. In cartography, the Piri Reis map drawn by the Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis in 1513, was one of the earliest world maps to include the Americas, and perhaps the first to include Antarctica. His map of the world was considered the most accurate in the 16th century.
Mathematics
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson wrote in the ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'':
Al-Khwarizmi (780-850), from whose name the word algorithm derives, contributed significantly to algebra, which is named after his book, ''Kitab al-Jabr'', the first book on elementary algebra.[39] He also introduced what is now known as Arabic numerals, which originally came from India, though Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Al-Kindi (801-873) was a pioneer in cryptanalysis and cryptology. He gave the first known recorded explanations of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis in ''A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''.[40][41]
The first known proof by mathematical induction appears in a book written by Al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum of integral cubes.[42] The historian of mathematics, F. Woepcke,[43] praised Al-Karaji for being "the first who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus." Ibn al-Haytham was the first mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers, and using the method of induction, he developed a method for determining the general formula for the sum of any integral powers, which was fundamental to the development of integral calculus.[44] The 11th century poet-mathematician Omar Khayyám was the first to find general geometric solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (1135-1213) found algebraic and numerical solutions to cubic equations and was the first to discover the derivative of cubic polynomials, an important result in differential calculus.[45]
Mechanics
Avicenna was a universal genius, who is considered the father of modern medicine and the father of the concept of momentum, and regarded as one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history.
In the mechanics field of physics, Muhammad ibn Musa (800-873), in his ''Astral Motion'' and ''The Force of Attraction'', was the first to discover that there was a force of attraction between heavenly bodies,[46] foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation.[47] ThÄbit ibn Qurra (836-901) rejected the Peripatetic and Aristotelian notions of a "natural place" for each element. He instead proposed a theory of motion in which both the upward and downward motions are caused by weight, and that the order of the universe is a result of two competing attractions (''jadhb''): one of these being "between the and celestial elements", and the other being "between all parts of each element separately".[48] Al-Kindi (801-873) described an early concept of relativity, which some see as a precursor to the later theory of relativity developed by Albert Einstein in the 20th century. Like Einstein, al-Kindi held that the physical world and physical phenomena are relative, that time, space, motion and bodies are all relative to each other and not independant or absolute, and that they are relative to other objects and to the observer.[49]
Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039) discussed the theory of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity and he discovered that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics".[50] Ibn al-Haytham also discovered the law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, when he stated that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion.Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, Routledge, New York, London. He also discovered the concept of momentum, part of Newton's second law of motion.[51]
Nobel Prize winning physicist Abdus Salam wrote the following on Ibn al-Haytham:
Avicenna (980-1037) discovered the concept of momentum, when he referred to impetus as being proportional to weight times velocity, a precursor to the concept of momentum in Newton's second law of motion.A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn SÄ«nÄ and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '500' (1), p. 477–482:
He is thus considered the father of the fundamental concept of momentum in physics.[52] His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of inertia in Newton's first law of motion. AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (973-1048) was the first to realize that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion.
In 1121, al-Khazini, in ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', was the first to propose that the gravity and gravitational potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth. This phenomenon was not proven until Newton's law of universal gravitation centuries later. Al-Khazini was also one of the first to clearly differentiate between force, mass, and weight, and he showed awareness of the weight of the air and of its decrease in density with altitude, and discovered that there was greater density of water when nearer to the Earth's centre.[53]
Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) (d. 1138) was the first to state that there is always a reaction force for every force exerted, a precursor to Gottfried Leibniz's idea of force which underlies Newton's third law of motion.[54] His theory of motion had an important influence on later physicists like Galileo Galilei.[55] Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (1080-1165) was the first to negate Aristotle's idea that a constant force produces uniform motion, as he realized that a force applied continuously produces acceleration, a fundamental law of classical mechanics and an early foreshadowing of Newton's second law of motion.[56] Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of velocity.[57] Averroes (1126–1198) was the first to define and measure force as "the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body"[58] and the first to correctly argue "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass."[59]
Medicine
Main articles: Islamic medicine
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery.
Muslim physicians made many significant advances and contributions to medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences. Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, which later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East.George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science''.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
Al-Razi (Rhazes) (865-925) recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. His ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', which introduced measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe. Al-Kindi wrote ''De Gradibus'', in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness.[60]
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern surgery,[61] wrote the ''Kitab al-Tasrif'' (1000), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia which was taught at Muslim and European medical schools until the 17th century. He invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '2' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press. as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[62] bone saw, and plaster.[63]
Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history, wrote ''The Canon of Medicine'' (1020) and ''The Book of Healing'' (11th century), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European universities until the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[64] the discovery of the contagious nature of diseases, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments, as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.
In 1021, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his ''Book of Optics'' (1021). In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe human blood circulation and pulmonary circulation. The ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') of Mansur ibn Ilyas (c. 1390) contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[65] Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the introduction of microbiology, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology), as well as the invention of the injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century Iraq, the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy by the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal and chemical substances.[66]
Optics
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera for his experiments on light and optics.
In the optics field of physics, Ibn Sahl (c. 940-1000), a mathematician and physicist connected with the court of Baghdad, wrote a treatise ''On Burning Mirrors and Lenses'' in 984 in which he set out his understanding of how curved mirrors and lenses bend and focus light. Ibn Sahl is now credited with first discovering the law of refraction, usually called Snell's law.[67]R. Rashed, "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses", ''Isis'' '81', p. 464–491, 1990. He used this law to work out the shapes of lenses that focus light with no geometric aberrations, known as anaclastic lenses.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) (965-1039), the father of optics and the pioneer of the scientific method, in his ''Book of Optics'', developed a broad theory of light and optics that explained vision, using geometry and anatomy, which stated that each point on an illuminated area or object radiates light rays in every direction, but that only one ray from each point, which strikes the eye perpendicularly, can be seen. The other rays strike at different angles and are not seen. He used the example of the camera obscura and pinhole camera, which produces an inverted image, to support his argument. This contradicted Ptolemy's theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. Alhacen held light rays to be streams of minute particles that travelled at a finite speed. He improved accurately described the refraction of light, and discovered the laws of refraction.
He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colours. His major work ''Kitab al-Manazir'' was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages, as well as his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, and the rainbow. He also attempted to explain binocular vision and the moon illusion. Through these extensive researches on optics, he is considered the father of modern optics.
Ibn al-Haytham also correctly argued that we see objects because the sun's rays of light, which he believed to be streams of tiny particles traveling in straight lines, are reflected from objects into our eyes. He understood that light must travel at a large but finite velocity, and that refraction is caused by the velocity being different in different substances. He also studied spherical and parabolic mirrors, and understood how refraction by a lens will allow images to be focused and magnification to take place. He understood mathematically why a spherical mirror produces aberration.
Robert S. Elliot wrote the following on Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen):
Avicenna (980-1037) agreed that the speed of light is finite, as he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."[68] AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (973-1048) also agreed that light has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound. Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311) and KamÄl al-DÄ«n al-FÄrisÄ« (1260-1320) gave the first correct explanations for the rainbow phenomenon.[69]
Al-Razi (Rhazes) was a polymath who made significant advances in psychiatry and wrote the earliest texts on psychotherapy, mental health, and mental illness.
Psychology
In psychology, the Arab physician Al-Razi (Rhazes) (865-925) was the first to study psychotherapy and made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'', which presented definitions, symptoms, and treatments for problems related to mental health and mental illness. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions.
Ibn al-Haytham is considered the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '16' (2). for his pioneering work on the on the psychology of visual perception in the ''Book of Optics''. In Book III of the ''Book of Optics'', Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. He pointed out that personal experience has an affect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. He explained possible errors in vision in detail, and as an example, describes how a small child with less experience may have more difficulty interpreting what he/she sees. He also gives an example of an adult that can make mistakes in vision because of how one's experience suggests that he/she is seeing one thing, when he/she is really seeing something else.Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
Ibn al-Haytham was also the first to combine physics and psychology to form psychophysics, and his investigations and experiments on psychology and visual perception included sensation, variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colours, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.
Social sciences
Significant contributions were made to the social sciences in the Islamic civilization.
AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (973-1048) has been described as "the first anthropologist".Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '60', p. 9-10. He wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and South Asia. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.[70]
Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his Islamic anthropology.[71] Biruni is also regarded as the father of Indology.[63] Al-Saghani (d. 990) wrote some of the earliest comments on the history of science, which included a comparison between the "ancients" (including the ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks and Indians) and the "modern scholars" (the Muslim scientists of his time).[73] Al-Muqaddasi (b. 945) also made contributions to the social sciences.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) is regarded as the father of demography,H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '1'. cultural history,[74] historiography,[75] the philosophy of history,Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '12' (3). sociology, and the social sciences,[76] and is viewed as one of the forerunners of modern economics. He is best known for his ''Muqaddimah'' (Latinized as ''Prolegomenon''). Some of the ideas he introduced in the ''Muqaddimah'' include social philosophy, social conflict theories, social cohesion, social capital, social networks, dialectics, the Laffer curve, the historical method, systemic bias, the rise and fall of civilizations, feedback loops, systems theory, and corporate social responsibility.
Franz Rosenthal wrote in the ''History of Muslim Historiography'':
Historiography
:''Main article: Historiography of early Islam - Historiography of Islamic science
The history of science in the Islamic world, like all history, is filled with questions of interpretation. Historians of science generally consider that the study of Islamic science, like all history, must be seen within the particular circumstances of time and place. A. I. Sabra opened a recent overview of Arabic science by noting, "I trust no one would wish to contest the proposition that all of history is local history ... and the history of science is no exception."[77]
Some scholars avoid such local historical approaches and seek to identify essential relations between Islam and science that apply at all times and places. The Persian philosopher and historian of science, Seyyed Hossein Nasr saw a more positive connection in "an Islamic science that was spiritual and antisecular" which "point[ed] the way to a new 'Islamic science' that would avoid the dehumanizing and despiritualizing mistakes of Western science."[78][79] Some historians of science, however, question the value of drawing boundaries that label the sciences, and the scientists who practice them, in specific cultural, civilizational, or linguistic terms.[80]
See also
★ Timeline of Islamic science and technology
★ List of Muslim scientists
★
★ List of Arab scientists and scholars
★
★ List of Iranian scientists and scholars
★ Islamic Golden Age
★
★ Early Islamic philosophy
★
★ Inventions in the Muslim world
★
★ Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
★ Islamic studies
★ Latin translations of the 12th century
★ Scholasticism
Notes
1. Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence, , A. I., Sabra, Isis, 1996
2. N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '54' (2), p. 299-328 [320].
3. R. L. Verma "Al-Hazen: father of modern optics", ''Al-Arabi'', 8 (1969): 12-13.
4. D. C. Lindberg, ''Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler'', (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 60-7.
5. Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. (cf. Bradley Steffens, "Who Was the First Scientist?", ''Ezine Articles''.)
6. Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.
7. Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '17', p. 7-55 [35-36]. Cambridge University Press.
8. George Saliba, ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', (New York: New York University, 1994), p.vii: "The main thesis, for which this collection of articles cam be used as evidence, is the one claiming that the period often called a period of decline in Islamic intellectual history was, scientifically speaking from the point of view of astronomy, a very productive period in which astronomical thories of the highest order were produced."
9. David A. King, "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", ''Isis'', 74 (1983):531-555
10. Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.
11. For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974) ''A Source Book in Medieval Science'', (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35-8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century," ''Science in Context'', 14 (2001): at 249-288, at pp. 275-281.
12. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 6.
13. G. G. Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock'', p. 306.
14. M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 444-6, 451
15. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 4-5.
16. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 5.
17. ''Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexicon''
18. Charles Burnett, ed. ''Adelard of Bath, Conversations with His Nephew,'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. xi.
19. D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 4.
20. M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 429, 455
21. Anatomy and Physiology, Islamic Medical Manuscripts, United States National Library of Medicine.
22. D. S. Kasir (1931). ''The Algebra of Omar Khayyam'', p. 6-7. Teacher's College Press, Columbia University, New York.
23. 1000 Years of Knowledge Rediscovered at Ibn Battuta Mall, MTE Studios.
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28. O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", ''Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets'' '6', pp. 4-11.
29. John William Draper (1878). ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 154-155, 237. ISBN 1603030964.
30. Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '84' (1), p. 71-123.
31. Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", ''The Islamic Quarterly''. London.
32. John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
33. Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
34. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: Routledge.
35. Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", ''Speculum'' '40' (4), p. 744-746.
36. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196-197.
37. Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
38. H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '1'.
39. Eglash (1999), p.61
40. Simon Singh, ''The Code Book'', p. 14-20.
41. Al-Kindi, Cryptgraphy, Codebreaking and Ciphers
42. Victor J. Katz (1998). ''History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 255-259. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0321016181.
43. F. Woepcke (1853). ''Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi''. Paris.
44. Victor J. Katz (1995). "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", ''Mathematics Magazine'' '68' (3), p. 163-174.
45. J. L. Berggren (1990). "Innovation and Tradition in Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Muadalat", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '110' (2), p. 304-309.
46. K. A. Waheed (1978). ''Islam and The Origins of Modern Science'', p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore.
47. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.
48. Mohammed Abattouy (2001). "Greek Mechanics in Arabic Context: Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Isfizarı and the Arabic Traditions of Aristotelian and Euclidean Mechanics", ''Science in Context'' '14', p. 205-206. Cambridge University Press.
49. The Theory of Relativity, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2003.
50. Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). ''To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo'', p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
51. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "The achievements of Ibn Sina in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy", ''Islam & Science'', December 2003.
52. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.
53. Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv, p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.
54. Shlomo Pines (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in ''Mélanges Alexandre Koyré'', I, 442-468 [462, 468], Paris.
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55. Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '12' (2), p. 163-193.
56.
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57. A. C. Crombie, ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.
58. Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '12' (3), p. 375-422 [375].
59. Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '12' (3), p. 375-422 [380].
60. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. Routledge, London.
61. A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurologÃa'' '34' (9), p. 877-892.
62. Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '4' (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)
63. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
64. Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '62' (1), p. 169-170.
65. H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138.
66. S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '51' (1-2), p. 47-50.
67. K. B. Wolf, "Geometry and dynamics in refracting systems", ''European Journal of Physics'' '16', p. 14-20, 1995.
68. George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 710.
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70. J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '59' (3), p. 389-403.
71. Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '68' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.
72. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
73. Franz Rosenthal (1950). "Al-Asturlabi and as-Samaw'al on Scientific Progress", ''Osiris'' '9', p. 555-564 [559].
74. Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '5' (1), p. 61-70.
75. Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
76. Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '56' (1), p. 25.
77. A. I. Sabra, Situating Arab Science: Locality versus Essence," ''Isis'', 87(1996):654-70; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages," (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000), pp. 215-231.
78. F. Jamil Ragep, "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science," ''Osiris'', topical issue on ''Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions'', n.s. 16(2001):49-50, note 3
79. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam
80. George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?
References
★ Campbell, Donald (2001). ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages''. Routledge. (Reprint of the London, 1926 edition). ISBN 0415231884.
★ d'Alverny, Marie-Thérèse. "Translations and Translators", in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, eds., ''Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century'', p. 421-462. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1982.
★ African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design, , Ron, Eglash, Rutgers University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8135-2614-0
★ The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, , John M., Hobson, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0521547245
★ The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, , Toby E., Huff, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0521529948
★ Joseph, George G. (2000). ''The Crest of the Peacock''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691006598.
★ Katz, Victor J. (1998). ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction''. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0321016181.
★ Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball, , Trevor Harvey, Levere, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8018-6610-3
★ Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History, , Sidney W., Mintz, Penguin (Non-Classics), 1986, ISBN 978-0140092332
★ The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, , William D., Phillips, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 052144652X
★ Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, , Howard R., Turner, University of Texas Press, 1997, ISBN 0292781490
Further reading
★ Studies in the exact sciences in medieval Islam, , Ali Abdullah al-, Daffa, Wiley, 1984, ISBN 0471903205
★ The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, , Jan P., Hogendijk, MIT Press, 2003, ISBN 0-262-19482-1 Reviewed by Robert G. Morrison at [1]
★ Hill, Donald Routledge, ''Islamic Science And Engineering'', Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
★ Toby E. Huff, ''The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 2nd edition 2003. ISBN 0-521-52994-8. Reviewed by George Saliba at [2]
★ Toby E. Huff, "Science and Metaphysics in the Three Religions of the Books", ''Intellectual Discourse'', 8, #2 (2000): 173-198.
★ The Arabic Heritage in the Exact Sciences, , Edward S., Kennedy, Al-Abhath, 1970
★ Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, , Edward S., Kennedy, Syracuse University Press, 1983, ISBN 0815660677
★ Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, , Roshdi, Rashed, , 1996, ISBN 0415020638
★ Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, , George, Saliba, The MIT Press, 2007, ISBN 0262195577
★ Islamic Science : An Illustrated Study, , , Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Kazi Publications, 1976, ISBN 1567443125
★ Science & Civilization in Islam, , , Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Texts Society, 2003, ISBN 1903682401
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '1': Quranwissenschaften, Hadit, Geschichte, Fiqh, Dogmatik, Mystik, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004041532
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '2': Poesie. Bis CA. 430 H, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004031316
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '3': Medizin-Pharmazie Zoologie-Tierheilkunde, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004031316
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '4': Alchimie-Chemie Botanik-Agrikultur, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004020098
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '5': Mathematik, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004041532
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '6': Astronomie, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004058788
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '7': Astrologie-Meteorologie Und Verwandtes, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004061592
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '8': Lexikographie. Bis CA. 430 H, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004068678
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '9': Grammatik. Bis CA. 430 H, , Fuat, Sezgin, Brill, 1997, ISBN 9004072616
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 'X': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 1, , Fuat, Sezgin, , 2000,
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 'XI': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 2, , Fuat, Sezgin, , 2000,
★ Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums 'XII': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 3, , Fuat, Sezgin, , 2000,
★ Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre
Werke, , Heinrich, Suter, , 1900,
External links
★ Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?
★ Habibi, Golareh. Review article, ''Science Creative Quarterly''.
★ An interactive guide to Muslim scientists whose multi-disciplinary contributions sparked the flame of learning and productivity
★ Islam, Knowledge, and Science
★ History of Science and Technology in Islam
★ Islamic Civilization
★ The Islamization of science or the marginalization of Islam
★ Muslimheritage
★ 1001inventions
★ Science and religion in Islam
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