:''This is a sub-article of
Islamic science and
Astronomy.''
In the
history of astronomy, 'Islamic astronomy' or 'Arabic astronomy' refers to the astronomical developments made by the
Islamic civilisation between the 8th and 15th centuries. It closely parallels the genesis of other
Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially
Islamic. These included
Indian,
Sassanid and
Hellenistic works in particular, which were translated and built upon.
Some stars in the sky, such as
Aldebaran, are still today recognized with their Arabic names.
History
Pre-
Islamic
Arabs had no scientific astronomy. Their knowledge of stars was only
empirical, limited to what they observed regarding the rising and setting of stars. The rise of Islam provoked increased Arab thought in this field.
[Dallal (1999), p. 162]
Foundations
There are several
cosmological verses in the
Qur'an which some modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing the
Big Bang theory:
[1]
[21:30] Don't those who reject faith see that the heavens and the earth were a single entity then We ripped them apart?
[51:47] And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, and We do cause it to expand.
The foundations of Islamic astronomy closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially Islamic. These include
Indian and
Sassanid works in particular. Some
Hellenistic texts were also translated and built upon as well.
The science historian
Donald Routledge Hill has divided the history of Islamic astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history.
700-825
The period of assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy.
During this period, a number of
Sanskrit and
Persian texts were translated into
Arabic. The most notable of the texts was ''Zij al-Sindhind'',
[2] based on the ''
Surya Siddhanta'' and the works of
Brahmagupta, and translated by
Muhammad al-Fazari and
YaqÅ«b ibn TÄriq in 777. Sources indicate that the text was translated after, in 770, an
Indian astronomer visited the court of
Caliph Al-Mansur. Another text translated was the ''Zij al-Shah'', a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Persia over two centuries.
Fragments of text during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the
sine function (inherited from
Indian trigonometry) instead of the
chords of
arc used in Hellenistic mathematics.
Islamic interest in astronomy ran parallel to the interest in mathematics. Noteworthy in this regard was the ''Almagest'' of Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (c. 100-178). The ''Almagest'' was a landmark work in its field, assembling, as Euclid's ''Elements'' had previously done with geometrical works, all extant knowledge in the field of astromony that was known to the author. This work was originally known as ''The Mathematical Composition'', but after it had come to be used as a text in astronomy, it was called ''The Great Astronomer''. The Islamic world called it ''The Greatest'' prefixing the Greek work ''megiste'' (greatest) with the article ''al-'' and it has since been known to the world as ''Al-megiste'' or, after popular use in Western translation, ''Almagest''. Ptolemy also produced other works, such as ''Optics'', ''Harmonica'', and some suggest he also wrote ''Tetrabiblon''.
The ''Almagest'' was a particularly unifying work for its exhaustive lists of sidereal phenomena. He drew up a list of chronological tables of Assyrian, Persian, Greek, and Roman kings for use in reckoning the lapse of time between known astronomical events and fixed dates. In addition to its relevance to calculating accurate calendars, it linked far and foreign cultures together by a common interest in the stars and astrology. The work of Ptolemy was replicated and refined over the years under Arab, Persian and other Muslim astronomers and astrologers.
825-1025
This period of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. Astronomical research was greatly supported by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun. Baghdad and Damascus became the centers of such activity. The caliphs not only supported this work financially, but endowed the work with formal prestige.
The first major Muslim work of astronomy was ''Zij al-Sindh'' by al-Khwarizimi in 830. The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marks the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of non-traditional methods of study and calculations.[3]
In 850, al-Farghani wrote ''Kitab fi Jawani'' ("''A compendium of the science of stars''"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy based on findings of earlier Arab astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin.[4]
In the 9th century, the eldest BanÅ« MÅ«sÄ brother, Muhammad ibn Musa, in his ''Astral Motion'' and ''The Force of Attraction'', discovered that there was a force of attraction between heavenly bodies,[5] foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation.[6]
1025-1450
During this period a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. Within the Greek tradition and its successors it was traditional to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by Ptolemy) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by Aristotle). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (''hay'a'') of the universe, that would be consistent with both mathematical and physical principles. Within the context of this ''hay'a'' tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy.[7] These criticisms, however, remained within the geocentric framework and most continued to follow Ptolemy's astronomical paradigm.[8] As the historian of astronomy, A. I. Sabra, noted:
Some Muslim scholars, including al-Biruni, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems.[9] Several Muslim astronomers, most notably Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and his succesors at the Maragheh school, developed non-Ptolemaic computational models within a geocentric context that were later adapted in the Copernican model in a heliocentric context.
Theories and observations
In the 11th century, AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« was the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of numerous nebulous stars. In Afghanistan, he observed and described the solar eclipse on April 8, 1019, and the lunar eclipse on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact latitudes of the stars during the lunar eclipse.[Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, Hasanuddin University.]
In 1030, AbÅ« al-RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« discussed the Indian planetary theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' (Latinized as ''Indica''). Biruni stated that Brahmagupta and others consider that the earth rotates on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.[10]
Abu Said Sinjari, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject.[A. Baker, L. Chapter (2002)] Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and geocentric models,[11] he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.[ He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:][[12]]
In 1031, al-Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia ''Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi'' (Latinized as ''Canon Mas’udicus''),[ in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. In it he presented a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the celestial spheres from the central Earth, computed according to the principles of Ptolemy's ''Almagest''.[13] The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the acceleration of the planets, and first states that the motions of the solar apogee and the precession are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than Ptolemy's estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual solar eclipses.][Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.][14] Al-Biruni also described the Earth's gravitation as:
In 1121, al-Khazini, in his treatise ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', states:[Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv, p. 7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.]
Al-Khazini was thus the first to propose the theory that the gravities of bodies vary depending on their distances from the centre of the Earth. This phenomenon was not proven until Newton's law of universal gravitation in the 18th century.
Beginning of ''hay'a'' tradition
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) was a pioneer of the Muslim ''haya'' tradition of astronomy, presented the first critique and reform of
Ptolemy's model, and laid the theoretical foundations for modern
telescopic astronomy.
Between 1025 and 1028, Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhacen), began the ''hay'a'' tradition of Islamic astronomy with his ''Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus'' (''Doubts on Ptolemy''). While maintaining the physical reality of the geocentric model, he was the first to criticize Ptolemy's astronomical system, for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines, and circles:
Ibn al-Haytham developed a physical structure of the Ptolemaic system in his ''Treatise on the configuration of the World'', or ''Maqâlah fî ''hay'at'' al-‛âlam'', which became an influential work in the ''hay'a'' tradition.[15] In his ''Epitome of Astronomy'', he was also the first to insist that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics".[16] The foundations of telescopic astronomy can also be traced back to Ibn al-Haytham, due to the influence of his optical studies on the later development of the modern telescope.[17]
In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in ''The Model of the Motions''. His reform excluded cosmology, as he developed a systematic study of celestial kinematics that was completely geometric. This in turn led to innovative developments in infinitesimal geometry.[18] His reformed model was the first to reject the equant[19] and eccentrics,[20] free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,[21] and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later.[22] Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth.[23]
In 1070, Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani, a pupil of Avicenna, proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his ''Tarik al-Aflak''. In his work, he indicated the so-called "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem. He claimed that his teacher Avicenna had also worked out the equant problem.[24]
Andalusian school
In the 11th-12th centuries, astronomers in al-Andalus took up the challenge earlier posed by Ibn al-Haytham, namely to develop an alternate non-Ptolemaic configuration that evaded the errors found in the Ptolemaic model.[25] Like Ibn al-Haytham's critique, the anonymous Andalusian work, ''al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus'' (''Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy''), included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy.
In the late 11th century, al-Zarqali (Latinized as Arzachel) discovered that the orbits of the planets are ellipses and not circles,[26] though he still followed the Ptolemaic model.
In the 12th century, Averroes rejected the eccentric deferents introduced by Ptolemy. He rejected the Ptolemaic model and instead argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. He wrote the following criticism on the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion:[27]
Averroes' contemporary, Maimonides, wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace):
Later in the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah's successors, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and al-Betrugi (Alpetragius), were the first to propose planetary models without any equant, epicycles or eccentrics. Al-Betrugi was also the first to discover that the planets are self-luminous.[28] Their configurations, however, were not accepted due to the numerical predictions of the planetary positions in their models being less accurate than that of the Ptolemaic model,[Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School, ''Science and Its Times'', Thomson Gale.] mainly because they followed Aristotle's notion of perfect circular motion.
Maragheh school
Main articles: Maragheh observatory
From the 13th century, astronomers of the Maragheh school, like the Andalusian astronomers, attempted to solve the equant problem and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations, which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, that were just as accurate as the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions. The most important of the Maragheh astronomers included Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. 1266), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274), 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini (d. 1277), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (1304-1375), Ala al-Qushji (c. 1474), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).[29]
Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. 1266) was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma".[30] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the Tusi-couple as an alternative to the physically problematic equant introduced by Ptolemy,[M. Gill (2005). Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?] and conceived a plausible model for elliptical orbits.[Richard Covington (2007).] Tusi's student Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311), in his ''The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens'', discussed the possibility of heliocentrism. 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini (d. 1277), who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his ''Hikmat al-'Ain'', wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea.
Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), in ''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory'', incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was mathematically identical to what Nicolaus Copernicus did in the 16th century. Ibn al-Shatir's system was also only approximately geocentric, rather than exactly so, having demonstrated trigonometrically that the Earth was not the exact center of the universe.
Y. M. Faruqi wrote:[31]
Ibn al-Shatir’s rectified model, which included the Tusi-couple and Urdi lemma, was later adapted into a heliocentric model by Copernicus,[ which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun in Ibn al-Shatir's model.][Saliba (1999).] In the published version of his masterwork, ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'', Copernicus also cites the theories of al-Battani, Arzachel and Averroes as influences,[ while the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) and al-Biruni were also known in Europe at the time.]
1450-1900
The period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with rapidly decreasing innovation of any major significance. This view, however, has been questioned by George Saliba after studying the works of the 16th century astronomer Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550), a commentator on earlier Maragheh astronomers. Saliba wrote the following on al-Khafri's work:
A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering around at least 10,000 manuscript volumes scattered throughout the world, much of which has not been read or even catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.
Azophi's ''The Depiction of Celestial Constellations''. The constellation pictured here is
Sagittarius.
Observatories
The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of al-Mamun. Here, and in many other private observatories from Damascus to Baghdad, meridian degrees were measured, solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the Sun, Moon, and planets were undertaken.
In the 10th century, the Buwayhid dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in Astronomy, such as the construction of a large scale instrument with which observations were made in the year 950CE. We know of this by recordings made in the ''zij'' of astronomers such as Ibn al-Alam. The great astronomer Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi was patronised by prince Adud o-dowleh, who systematically revised Ptolemy's catalogue of stars. Sharaf al-Daula also established a similar observatory in Baghdad. And reports by Ibn Yunus and al-Zarqall in Toledo and Cordoba indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time.
It was Malik Shah I who established the first large observatory, probably in Isfahan. It was here where Omar Khayyám with many other collaborators constructed a zij and formulated the Persian Solar Calendar a.k.a. the ''jalali calendar''. A modern version of this calendar is still in official use in Iran today.
Maragheh observatory
Main articles: Maragheh observatory
The most influential observatory, however, was the Maragheh observatory founded by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī under the patronage of Hulegu Khan in the 13th century. Here, al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at Maragheh. The facility contained resting quarters for Hulagu Khan, as well as a library and mosque. Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and from their collaboration resulted important modifications to the Ptolemaic system over a period of 50 years.
Samarkand and Istanbul observatories
In 1420, prince Ulugh Beg, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in Samarkand, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams.
And finally, ''Taqi al-din bin Ma'ruf'' founded a large observatory in Istanbul in 1575, which was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand.
Modern observatories
In modern times, Turkey [1][2]has many well equipped observatories, while Jordan [3], Palestine [4], Lebanon [5], UAE [6], Tunisia [7], and other Arab states are also active as well. Iran has modern facilities at Shiraz University and Tabriz University. In Dec 2005, ''Physics Today'' reported of Iranian plans to construct a "world class" facility with a 2.0 m telescope observatory in the near future.[8]
Instruments
Modern knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources. First the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages.
Muslims made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details. Their contributions to astronomical instrumentation are abundant.
Astrolabes
Brass astrolabe
Brass astrolabes were developed in much of the Islamic world, chiefly as an aid to finding the qibla. The earliest known example is dated 315 (in the Islamic calendar, corresponding to 927-8CE). The first person credited for building the Astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly Fazari (Richard Nelson Frye: Golden Age of Persia. p163). He only improved it though, the Greeks had already invented astrolabes to chart the stars. The Arabs then took it during the Abbasid Dynasty and perfected it to be used to find the beginning of Ramadan, the hours of prayer, and the direction of Mecca.
Saphaea
The first astrolabe instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the Sun and fixed stars. Arzachel (Al-Zarqali) of Al-Andalus constructed one such instrument in which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere. This instrument became known in Europe as the "Saphaea".
Mechanical geared astrolabes
The first mechanical astrolabes with gears were invented in the Muslim world, and were perfected by Ibn Samh. One such device with eight gear-wheels was also constructed by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« in 996. These can be considered as an ancestor of the mechanical clocks developed by later Muslim engineers.[32]
Orthographical astrolabe
Abu Rayhan al-Biruni invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the orthographical astrolabe in the 1000s.[Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.]
Linear astrolabe
A famous work by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī is one in which he describes the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which he invented.[33]
Analog computers
Equatorium
The Equatorium was invented by AbÅ« IshÄq IbrÄhÄ«m al-ZarqÄlÄ« (Arzachel) in al-Andalus, probably around 1015 CE. It is a mechanical device for finding the positions of the Moon, Sun, and planets, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the celestial body's mean and anomalistic position.
Planisphere
Abu Rayhan al-Biruni invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the planisphere in the 1000s.
Mechanical geared calendar computer
AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« invented the first mechanical lunisolar calendar computer which employed a gear train and eight gear-wheels.[34] This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine.[Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '9' (1), p. 63-70 [64].]
Astrolabe with geared calendar computer
In 1235, Abi Bakr of Isfahan invented a brass astrolabe astrolabe with a geared calendar movement based on the design of AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.[35] Abi Bakr's geared astrolabe uses a set of gear-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared machine in existence.[36][37]
Armillary spheres and spherical astrolabes
An armillary sphere had similar applications to a Celestial globe. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings†were written. In this context there is also an Islamic development, the spherical astrolabe, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived.
Astronomical clock
The Muslims constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.[38]
Celestial globes
Celestial globes were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the Right Ascension and Declination of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe.
Hodometer
AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« invented an early hodometer in the 11th century.[39] This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine.
Quadrants
Several forms of quadrants were invented by Muslims. Among them was the sine quadrant used for astronomical calculations and various forms of the horary quadrant, used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. A center of the development of quadrants was ninth-century Baghdad.[40]
Sextant
The first sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. It was a very large sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for astronomical measurements, which he described his in his treatise, ''On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities''.[41]
Sundials
Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of sundials, which they inherited from their Indian and Hellenistic predecessors. Khwarizmi made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations.
Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the time of prayer. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the ''muwaqqit'' (timekeeper) of the Umayyid Mosque in Damascus, Ibn al-Shatir.[42]
Famous Muslim astronomy books
★ Al-Khwarizmi (Latinized as ''Algorismi'') (c. 780-850)
★
★ ''Zij al-Sindhind'' (c. 830)
★ Muhammad ibn Musa (800-873)
★
★ ''Astral Motion''
★
★ ''The Force of Attraction''
★ Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn KathÄ«r al-FarghÄnÄ« (Latinized as ''Alfraganus'') (d. 850)
★
★ ''Elements of astronomy on the celestial motions'' (c. 833)
★
★ ''Kitab fi Jawami Ilm al-Nujum''
★ Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as ''Alhacen'') (965-1029)
★
★ ''On the Configuration of the World''
★
★ ''Doubts concerning Ptolemy''
★
★ ''The Resolution of Doubts'' (c. 1029)
★
★ ''The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets'' (1029-1039)
★ AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (973-1048)
★
★ ''Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi'' (Latinized as ''Canon Mas’udicus'') (1031)
★ Al-Zarqali (Latinized as ''Arzachel'') (1028-1087)
★
★ ''Tables of Toledo''
★ Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani (c. 1070)
★
★ ''Tarik al-Aflak'' (1070)
★ ''Al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus'' (''Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy'') (11th century)
★ NasÄ«r al-DÄ«n al-TÅ«sÄ« (1201-1274)
★
★ ''Al-Tadhkirah fi'ilm al-hay'ah''
★
★ ''Zij-i Ilkhani'' (''Ilkhanic Tables'') (1272)
★ 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini (d. 1277)
★
★ ''Hikmat al-'Ain''
★ Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311)
★
★ ''The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens''
★ Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375)
★
★ ''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory''
★ Ulugh Beg (1394-1449)
★
★ ''Zij-i-Sultani'' (1437)
See also
★ Islamic science
★ Islamic Golden Age
★ List of Muslim astronomers
★ List of Muslim scientists
★ List of Iranian scientists
★ Islamic astrology
★ Arab and Persian astrology
★ History of astronomy
★ Hebrew astronomy
★ Zij
Notes
1. A. Abd-Allah, The Qur'an, Knowledge, and Science, University of Southern California.
2. This book is not related to al-Khwarizmi's ''Zij al-Sindh''. On ''zijes'' see E. S. Kennedy, "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables".
3. Dallal (1999), pg. 163
4. Dallal (1999), pg. 164
5. K. A. Waheed (1978). ''Islam and The Origins of Modern Science'', p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore.
6. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.
7. A. I. Sabra (1998), pp. 293-8
8. Dennis Duke, ''Arabic Models for outer Planets and Venus''
9. Teresi, et al., (2002)
10. S. H. Nasr, ''Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 135, n. 13
11. Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", ''Speculum'' '40' (4), p. 744-746.
12. G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). ''History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations'', p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, UNESCO.
13. S. H. Nasr, ''Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 134
14. George Saliba (1980), "Al-Biruni", in Joseph Strayer, ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'', Vol. 2, p. 249. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
15. Y. Tzvi Langermann, ed. and trans., ''Ibn al-Haytham's'' On the Configuration of the World, Harvard Dissertations in the History of Science, (New York: Garland, 1990), pp. 25-34
16. Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). ''To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo'', p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
17. O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", ''Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets'' '6', p. 4.
18. Rashed (2007).
19. Rashed (2007), p. 20, 53.
20. Rashed (2007), p. 33-34.
21. Rashed (2007), p. 20, 32-33.
22. Rashed (2007), p. 51-52.
23. Rashed (2007), p. 35-36.
24. A. I. Sabra (1998). "Configuring the Universe:
Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy", ''Perspectives on Science'' '6' (3), p. 288-330 [305-306].
25. George Saliba (1981). "''Geschichte des arabischen Schriftiums. Band VI: Astronomie bis ca. 430 H'' by F. Sezgin", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '101' (2), p. 219-221 [219].
26. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 190.
27. Owen Gingerich (April 1986). "Islamic astronomy", ''Scientific American'' '254' (10), p. 74.
28. Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", ''Isis'' '63' (1), p. 39-47 [41].
29. Dallal (1999), pg. 171
30. George Saliba (1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School", ''Isis'' '70' (4), p. 571-576.
31. Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise", ''International Education Journal'' '7' (4), p. 395-396.
32. Islam, Knowledge, and Science. University of Southern California.
33. Linear astrolabe, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.
34. Donald Routledge Hill (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '42', p. 139-163.
35. Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' '56' (5), p. 1-69.
36. Astrolabe gearing, Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.
37. History of the Astrolabe, Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.
38. Ajram (1992).
39. D. De S. Price (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines", ''IEEE Micro'' '4' (1), p. 22-52.
40. David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., ''Astronomy before the telescope'', p. 167-168. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7.
41.
42. David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy," pp. 168-9.
References
★ Abdulhak Adnan, ''La science chez les Turcs ottomans'', Paris, 1939.
★ K. Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
★ A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.
★ Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''Saudi Aramco World'', p. 2-16.
★ Ahmad Dallal, "Science, Medicine and Technology.", in ''The Oxford History of Islam'', ed. John Esposito, New York: Oxford University Press, (1999).
★ Antoine Gautier, ''L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane'', in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), December 2005, volume 119.
★ M. Gill (2005). Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?
★ Donald R. Hill, ''Islamic Science And Engineering'', Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
★ E. S. Kennedy, "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables," ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,'' 46, 2 (1956).
★ Edward S. Kennedy (1998), ''Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World''. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.
★ David A. King (1986). ''Islamic mathematical astronomy''. London.
★ David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in ''Astronomy before the telescope'', ed. Christopher Walker. British Museum Press, (1999), pp. 143-174. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7
★ Seyyed H. Nasr, (1964) ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines,'', Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press.
★ Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '17', p. 7-55. Cambridge University Press.
★ A. I. Sabra (1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy," ''Perspectives on Science'' '6', p. 288-330.
★ George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University.
★ George Saliba (2000). "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science", ''Perspectives on Science'' '8', p. 328-341.
★ H. Suter (1902). ''Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber''.
★ Dick Teresi, Jamil Ragep, and Roger Hart (2002). "Ancient Roots of Modern Science", ''Talk of the Nation'' (NPR discussion of intercultural scientific contacts; astronomy is discussed in the first fifteen-minute segment).
External links
★ "Tubitak Turkish National Observatory Antalya"
★ "Scientific American" article on Islamic Astronomy
★ The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)
★ King Abdul Aziz Observatory
★ History of Islamic Astrolabes
★ Arabic models for replacing the equant for the outer planets and Venus
★ Ibn ash-Shatir model for Mercury
★ Ibn ash-Shatir model for the Moon
★ Arabian astronomy
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