'Islamic architecture' has encompassed a wide range of both secular and
religious architecture styles from the
foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures within the sphere of
Islamic culture.
The principle architectural types of Islamic architecture are; the
Mosque, the
Tomb, the
Palace and the
Fort. From these four types, the vocabularly of Islamic architecture is derived and used for buildings of lesser importance such as
public baths,
fountains and domestic architecture.
[1]
History
In
630C.E. Muhammad's army reconquered the city of
Mecca from the
Banu Quraish tribe. The holy sanctuary of
Ka'ba was rebuilt and re-dedicated to
Islam, the reconstruction being carried out before Muhammad's death in
632C.E. by a shipwrecked
Abyssinian carpenter in his native style. This sanctuary was amongst the first major works of Islamic architecture. The walls were decorated with paintings of Jesus, Mary, Abraham, prophets, angels and trees. Later doctrines of Islam dating from the
eighth century and originating from the
Hadith, forbade the use of such icons in architecture, specifically those of humans and animals.
In the
7th century,
Muslim armies invaded and conquered a huge expanse of land. Once the Muslims had taken control of a region, their first need was for somewhere to worship - a
mosque. The simple layout provided elements that were to be incorporated into all mosques and the early Muslims put up simple buildings based on the model of the Prophet's house or adapted existing buildings, such as
churches for their own use.
Influences and styles
A specifically recognisable Islamic
architectural style developed soon after the time of the Prophet
Muhammad, developing from
Roman,
Egyptian,
Byzantine, and
Persian/
Sassanid models. An early example may be identified as early as 691 AD with the completion of the
Dome of the Rock (''Qubbat al-Sakhrah'') in
Jerusalem. It featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative patterns (
arabesque).
The
Great Mosque of Samarra in
Iraq, completed in 847 AD, combined the
hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling
minaret was constructed.
The
Hagia Sophia in
Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the
Ottomans captured the city from the
Byzantines, they converted the
basilica to a
mosque (now a museum) and incorporated
Byzantine architectural elements into their own work (e.g. ''
domes''). The Hagia Sophia also served as model for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the
Suleiman Mosque, and the
Rüstem Pasha Mosque.
Distinguishing
motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect,
fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.
[2] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the
Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the
17th century with the
Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into Western architecture.
[3][4]
Persian architecture
Main articles: Persian architecture
One of the
first civilizations that
Islam came into contact with during and after its birth was that of
Persia. The eastern banks of the
Tigris and
Euphrates was where the capital of the
Persian empire lay during the 7th century. Hence the proximity often led early Islamic architects to not just borrow, but adopt the traditions and ways of the fallen Persian empire.
Islamic architecture borrows heavily from Persian architecture and in many ways can be called an extension and further evolution of Persian architecture.
Many cities such as
Baghdad, for example, were based on precedents such as
Firouzabad in
Persia. In fact, it is now known that the two designers who were hired by
al-Mansur to plan the city's design were
Naubakht (نوبخت), a former Persian
Zoroastrian, and
Mashallah (ماشاءالله), a former
Jew from
Khorasan,
Iran.
Persian-style mosques are characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large
arcades, and arches supported each by several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs.
[5]
Moorish architecture
Main articles: Moorish architecture
Construction of the
Great Mosque at Cordoba beginning in 785 AD marks the beginning of Islamic architecture in the
Iberian peninsula and
North Africa (see
Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior
arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the
Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress of
Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylize
foliage motifs,
Arabic inscriptions, and
arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed
tile.
Main articles: Mudéjar,
Moorish Revival
Even after the completion of the
Reconquista, Islamic influence had a lasting impact on the
architecture of Spain. In particular, medieval Spaniards used the
Mudéjar style, an imitation of Islamic design. One of the best examples of the Moors' lasting impact is the
Alcázar of Seville.
Turkistan (Timurid) architecture
Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of
Islamic art in
Central Asia. Spectacular and stately edifices erected by
Timur and
his successors in
Samarkand and
Herat helped to disseminate the influence of the
Ilkhanid school of art in
India, thus giving rise to the celebrated
Moghol school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the
sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in present-day
Kazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleum
Gur-e Amir in
Samarkand. The style is largely derived from
Persian architecture.
Axial symmetry is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the
Shah-e Zendah in
Samarkand and the mosque of
Gowhar Shad in
Meshed. Double
domes of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors.
Ottoman Turkish architecture
The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in
Turkey, which obtained influence from Byzantine, Persian and Syrian designs. Turkish architects implemented their own style of
cupola domes.
The architecture of the Turkish
Ottoman Empire forms a distinctive whole, especially the great mosques by and in the style of
Sinan, like the mid-16th century
Suleiman Mosque. For almost 500 years
Byzantine architecture such as the church of
Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.
The
Ottomans achieved the highest level architecture in the Islamic lands hence or since. They mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consisted of simple buildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the Ottomans through a dynamic architectural vocabulary of
vaults, domes, semidomes and columns. The mosque was transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabesque-covered walls into a sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined elegance and a hint of heavenly transcendence.
Fatimid architecture
In architecture, the
Fatimids followed
Tulunid techniques and used similar materials, but also developed those of their own. In
Cairo, their first congregational mosque was
al-Azhar mosque ("the splendid") founded along with the city (969–973), which, together with its adjacent institution of higher learning (
al-Azhar University), became the spiritual center for
Ismaili Shia. The Mosque of al-Hakim (r. 996–1013), an important example of Fatimid architecture and architectural decoration, played a critical role in Fatimid ceremonial and procession, which emphasized the religious and political role of the Fatimid
caliph. Besides elaborate funerary monuments, other surviving Fatimid structures include the Mosque of al-Aqmar (1125) as well as the monumental gates for Cairo's
city walls commissioned by the powerful Fatimid
emir and
vizier Badr al-Jamali (r. 1073–1094).
Al-Hakim Mosque (990-1012) was renovated by Dr.
Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin (head of Dawoodi
Bohra community) and
Al-Jame-al-Aqmar built in 1125 in
Cairo, Egypt features with its Fatimi philosophy and symbolism and bring its architecture vividly to life.
Emir Qurqumas complex.
Sultan Hassan Mosque.
Mamluk architecture
The reign of the
Mamluks (1250-1517 AD) marked a breathtaking flowering of Islamic art which is most visible in old Cairo. Their piety was reflected in the great religious complexes and beautiful works of art they commissioned. This
religious zeal made them generous patrons of architecture and art. Trade and agriculture flourished under Mamluk rule, and Cairo, their capital, became one of the wealthiest cities in the
Near East and the center of artistic and intellectual activity. This made Cairo, in the words of
Ibn Khaldun, "the
center of the universe and the garden of the world."
The Mamluk utilized chiaroscuro and dappled light effects in their buildings. The majestic domes, courtyards, and soaring minarets that spread across old Cairo is a good demonstration.
Mamluk history is divided into two periods based on different dynastic lines: the
Bahri Mamluks (1250–1382) of Qipchaq Turkic origin from southern Russia, named after the location of their barracks on the Nile and the
Burji Mamluks (1382–1517) of Caucasian Circassian origin, who were quartered in the citadel.
The Bahri reign defined the art and architecture of the entire Mamluk period. Mamluk decorative arts—especially enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textiles—were prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. The influence of Mamluk glassware on the Venetian glass industry is only one such example.
The reign of Baybars's ally and successor, Qala’un (r. 1280–90), initiated the patronage of public and pious foundations that included madrasas, mausolea, minarets, and hospitals. Such endowed complexes not only ensured the survival of the patron's wealth but also perpetuated his name, both of which were endangered by legal problems relating to inheritance and confiscation of family fortunes. Besides Qala’un's complex, other important commissions by Bahri Mamluk sultans include those of
al-Nasir Muhammad (1295–1304) as well as the immense and splendid complex of Hasan (begun 1356).
The Burji Mamluk sultans followed the artistic traditions established by their Bahri predecessors. Mamluk textiles and carpets were prized in
international trade. In architecture, endowed public and pious foundations continued to be favored. Major commissions in the early Burji period in Egypt included the complexes built by Barquq (r. 1382–99), Faraj (r. 1399–1412), Mu’ayyad Shaykh (r. 1412–21), and Barsbay (r. 1422–38).
In the eastern Mediterranean provinces, the lucrative trade in textiles between Iran and Europe helped revive the economy. Also significant was the commercial activity of pilgrims en route to Mecca and Medina. Large warehouses, such as the Khan al-Qadi (1441), were erected to satisfy the surge in trade. Other public foundations in the region included the mosques of Aqbugha al-Utrush (Aleppo, 1399–1410) and Sabun (Damascus, 1464) as well as the Madrasa Jaqmaqiyya (Damascus, 1421).
In the second half of the fifteenth century, the arts thrived under the patronage of Qa’itbay (r. 1468–96), the greatest of the later Mamluk sultans. During his reign, the shrines of Mecca and Medina were extensively restored. Major cities were endowed with commercial buildings, religious foundations, and bridges. In Cairo, the complex of Qa’itbay in the Northern Cemetery (1472–74) is the best known and admired structure of this period.
Building continued under the last Mamluk sultan, Qansuh al-Ghawri (r. 1501–17), who commissioned his own complex (1503–5); however, construction methods reflected the finances of the state. Though the Mamluk realm was soon incorporated into the Ottoman empire (1517), Mamluk
visual culture continued to inspire Ottoman and other Islamic artistic traditions.
Mughal architecture
Main articles: Mughal architecture
The
Badshahi Masjid, literally the 'Royal Mosque', was built in 1674 by
Aurangzeb. It is one of
Lahore's best known landmarks, and epitomizes the beauty and grandeur of the
Mughal era.
The
Taj Mahal in
Agra, built by
Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, represents the pinnacle of Mughal Islamic architecture in India and is one of the most recognisable buildings in the world.
Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of the
Mughal Empire in
India in the 16th century and a fusion of
Persian and
Hindu elements. The
Mughal emperor Akbar constructed the royal city of
Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles west of
Agra, in the late
1500s.
The most famous example of
Mughal architecture is the
Taj Mahal, the "teardrop on eternity," completed in 1648 by the emperor
Shah Jahan in memory of his wife
Mumtaz Mahal who died while giving birth to their 14th child. The extensive use of precious and semiprecious stones as inlay and the vast quantity of white marble required nearly bankrupted the empire. The Taj Mahal is completely symmetric other than the
sarcophagus of
Shah Jahan which is placed off center in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in
red sandstone to complement the Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the main structure. Another structure built that showed great depth of mughal influence was the
Shalimar Gardens.
Sino-Islamic architecture
Main articles: Chinese mosques
thumb
thumb
Turpan mosque
The first
Chinese mosque was established in the
7th century during the
Tang Dynasty in
Xi'an. The
Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the
Ming Dynasty, does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it follows traditional
Chinese architecture. Mosques in western China incorporate more of the elements seen in mosques in other parts of the world. Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like
pagodas.
[6]
An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on
symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur; this applies to everything from
palaces to
mosques. One notable exception is in the design of
gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow; to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself.
Chinese buildings may be built with either red or grey bricks, but
wooden structures are the most common; these are more capable of withstanding
earthquakes, but are vulnerable to
fire. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved; there are strict classifications of gable types, comparable with the
classical orders of European columns.
Most mosques have certain aspects in common with each other however as with other regions Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style. China is renowned for its beautiful mosques, which resemble temples. However in western China the mosques resemble those of
the Middle East, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese
Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of eastern and western styles. The mosques have flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and
minarets (see
Beytullah Mosque).
[7]
Afro-Islamic architecture
Main articles: African architecture
The
Islamic conquest of North Africa saw Islamic architecture develop in the region, including such famous structures as the
Cairo Citadel.
Islamic merchants played a vital role in the Western
Sahel region since the
Kingdom of Ghana.
At
Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by
al-bakri), one centered on
Friday prayer.
[8] The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.
[9] Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities of
Djenné and
Timbuktu. The
Sankore Mosque in
Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the
Great Mosque of Djenné.
Contemporary architecture
Interpretation
Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following: The concept of
Allah's infinite power is evoked by designs with repeating themes which suggest infinity. Human and animal forms are rarely depicted in
decorative art as Allah's work is considered to be matchless. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or simplified for the same reason.
Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of a building by providing quotations from the
Qur'an. Islamic architecture has been called the "architecture of the veil" because the beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible from the outside (street view). Furthermore, the use of grandiose forms such as large domes, towering minarets, and large courtyards are intended to convey power.
Architecture of mosques and buildings in Muslim countries
Main articles: mosque
Forms
Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the
Islamic world. Notable Islamic architectural types include the early
Abbasid buildings,
T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of
Anatolia. The
oil-wealth of the 20th century drove a great deal of mosque construction using designs from leading modern architects.
''Arab-plan'' or ''hypostyle'' mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the
Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosed courtyard and a covered prayer hall. Historically, because of the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshipers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques have flat roofs on top of prayer halls, necessitating the use of numerous
columns and
supports.
[10] One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the
Mezquita in
Córdoba,
Spain, as the building is supported by over 850 columns.
[11] Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer
arcades so that visitors can enjoy some shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and
Abbasid dynasties; subsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, and as a result, these mosques gradually fell out of popularity.
introduced ''central dome mosques'' in the
15th century and have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there are often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed.
[12] This style was heavily influenced by the
Byzantine religious architecture with its use of large central domes.
Iwan
An iwan (Persian ايوان derived from Pahlavi word Bān meaning house) is defined as a vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open.
Iwans were a trademark of the
Sassanid architecture of
Persia, later finding their way into Islamic architecture. This transition reached its peak during the
Seljuki era when iwans became established as a fundamental design unit in Islamic architecture. Typically, iwans open on to a central courtyard, and have been used in both public and residential architecture.
''Iwan mosques'' are most notable for their domed chambers and ''
iwans'', which are vaulted spaces open out on one end. In ''iwan'' mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style represents a borrowing from
pre-Islamic Iranian architecture and has been used almost exclusively for mosques in
Iran. Many ''iwan'' mosques are converted
Zoroastrian fire temples where the courtyard was used to house the sacred fire.
Today, iwan mosques are no longer built.
12
Sahn
A simple Sahn, with a
howz in the middle. Notice flanking domed
arcade.
Almost every mosque and traditionally all houses and buildings in areas of the
Arab World contain a courtyard known as a
sahn (
Arabic صحن), which are surrounded on all sides by rooms and sometimes an arcade. Sahns usually feature a centrally positioned pool known as a
howz.
If a sahn is in a mosque, it is used for performing ablutions. If a sahn is in a traditional house or private courtyard, it is used for aesthetics and to cool the summer heat.
Gardens
Main articles: Islamic Gardens
The
Qur'an uses the garden as an analogy for paradise and Islam came to have a significant influence on
garden design.
Arabesque
An element of
Islamic art usually found decorating the walls of mosques and Muslim homes and buildings, the
arabesque is an elaborate application of repeating
geometric forms that often echo the forms of plants, shapes and sometimes animals (specifically
birds). The choice of which geometric forms are to be used and how they are to be formatted is based upon the Islamic view of the world. To Muslims, these forms, taken together, constitute an infinite pattern that extends beyond the visible material world. To many in the Islamic world, they in fact symbolize the infinite, and therefore uncentralized, nature of the creation of the
one God (
Allah). Furthermore, the Islamic Arabesque artist conveys a definite spirituality without the
iconography of
Christian art. Arabesque is used in mosques and building around the Muslim world, and it is a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic art instead of using pictures of humans and animals (which is forbidden ''
Haram'' in
Islam).
Calligraphy
Arabic
calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (the Arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.
Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the
spoken word, calligraphy for the Muslim is a visible expression of spiritual concepts. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The
holy book of Islam, al-
Qur'ān, has played a vital role in the development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the
Arabic alphabet.
Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic calligraphy.
Elements of Islamic style
Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque built by
Muhammad in
Medina, as well as from other pre-Islamic features adapted from churches, temples and synagogues. Byzantine architecture had a great influence on early Islamic architecture with its characteristic round arches, vaults and domes.
★ Large courtyards often merged with a central prayer hall (originally a feature of the
Masjid al-Nabawi).
★
Minarets or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers, as seen in the
Great Mosque of Damascus; hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic ''nur'', meaning "light").
★ A four-
iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces toward Mecca
★
Mihrab or
prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to
Mecca. This may have been derived from previous uses of niches for the setting of the
torah scrolls in
Jewish synagogues or the
haikal of
Coptic churches.
★
Domes and
Cupolas.
★ Iwans to intermediate between different sections.
★ The use of geometric shapes and repetitive art (arabesque).
★ The use of decorative
Islamic calligraphy instead of
pictures which were
haram (forbidden) in mosque architecture. Note that in secular architecture, human and animal representation was indeed present.
★ Central
fountains used for
ablutions (once used as a
wudu area for Muslims).
★ The use of bright color.
★ Focus both on the interior space of a building and the exterior
Differences between Islamic architecture and Persian architecture
Like this of other nations that became part of the Islamic realm,
Persian Architecture is not to be confused with ''Islamic Architecture'' and refers broadly to architectural styles across the Islamic world. Islamic architecture, therefore, does not directly include reference to Persian styles prior to the rise of Islam. Persian architecture, like other nations', predates Islamic architecture and can be correctly understood as an important influence on overall Islamic architecture as well as a branch of Islamic architecture since the introduction of Islam in
Persia. Islamic architecture can be classified according to chronology, geography, and building typology.
See also
★
Islamic Golden Age
★
Indo-Islamic Architecture
★
Moorish Revival
★
Madrassa
★
Aga Khan Award for Architecture
★
Hispano-Moresque Pottery
★
Historic Cities Support Programme
★
Ebba Koch
Notes
1. Copplestone, p.149
2. Tonna (1990), pp.182-197
3. Grabar, O. (2006) p.87
4. Ettinghausen (2003), p.87
5. "Islam", ''The New Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2005)
6. Muslims in China: The Mosque Jill S. Cowen
7. Saudi Aramco World, July/August 1985 , page 3035
8. Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, The Society, 1957, pp81
9. Davidson, Basil. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little Brown, 1959, pp86
10.
11. Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures
12. Vocabulary of Islamic Architecture
References
★ Ettinghausen, Richard and Grabar, Oleg. (1987) ''The Art and Architecture of Islam: 650 - 1250'', Penguin, USA
★ Pourjafar, M.Reza and Taghvaee, Ali A. (January-June 2006) ''Indo-Iranian Socio-Cultural Relations at Past, Present and Future'' Vol. 1 in
-'''Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony''' (Fabio Maniscalco ed.)
★ Copplestone, Trewin. (ed). (1963). ''World architecture - An illustrated history.'' Hamlyn, London.
★
★
Creswell, K. A. C. (1958) ''A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture''
External links
★
Fons Vitae - Islamic Architecture of Cairo
★
Islamic Art Network - Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation
★
Art of the Mamluks
★
http://www.osmanlimedeniyeti.com Many articles about the
Ottoman Turkish Mosques and Mosque architecture (in Turkish)
★
Discussion of Islamic architecture
★
http://www.3dkabah.com A
3D model of the
Grand Mosque in Makkah, with pictures and videos
★
Great Mosque of Sammarra
★
Watch "Isfahan the Movie" on QuickTime Player to see superb example of Islamic architecture.
★
Islamic Architecture org.
★
Gallery of Islamic Architecture
★
Article, "What is Islamic Architecture?"
★
Article, "The Mosque of Two Pillars at Georgetown University"
★
Art and architecture of the Arab world and Islam
★
Turkish Architecture - Architect Sinan articles about the Ottoman-Turkish Architecture an Architect Sinan (in Turkish)
★
ArchNet: Islamic Architecture Community
★
Islamic Designers
★
Picture database of the islamic world
العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
Español
