(Redirected from Islamic)
'Islam' (
Arabic: ) is a
monotheistic religion originating with the teachings of
Muhammad, a 7th-century
Arab religious and political figure. The word ''Islam'' means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to God (Arabic:
الله, Allāh). An adherent of Islam is known as a
Muslim, meaning "one who submits (to God)".
[1][2] There are between 1 and 1.5 billion Muslims, making Islam the
second-largest religion in the world, after Christianity.
[3]
Muslims believe that God
revealed the
Qur'an to Muhammad, God's
final prophet, and regard the Qur'an and the
Sunnah (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.
[4] They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of
Abraham,
Moses,
Jesus, and other
prophets. Islamic tradition holds that
Judaism and
Christianity distorted the messages of these prophets over time either in interpretation, in text, or both.
[5]
Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the
Five Pillars of Islam, which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.
[6] In addition to the Five Pillars,
Islamic law (''sharia'') has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like
dietary laws and
banking to
warfare.
[7]
Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the
Sunni and
Shi'a. The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 15 percent are Shi'a. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the
Middle East, as well as in parts of
Africa and
Asia. Large communities are also found in
China,
Western Europe, the
Balkan Peninsula, and
Russia. About 20 percent of Muslims live in
Arab countries.
[8]
Etymology and meaning
The word ''islām'' is derived from the
Arabic verb ''aslama'', which means to accept, surrender or submit. Thus, Islam means submission to and acceptance of God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding
polytheism. The word is given a number of meanings in the
Qur'an. In some verses (''
ayat''), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."
[9] Other verses connect ''islām'' and ''
dīn'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."
[9] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.
[11]
Beliefs
Main articles: Aqidah
According to the Qur'an all Muslims have to believe in God, his revelations, his
angels, his
messengers, and in the "
Day of Judgment".
[9] Also, there are other beliefs that differ between
particular sects. The
Sunni concept of predestination is called
divine decree,
[13] while the
Shi'a version is called
divine justice. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of ''
Imamah'', or the political and spiritual leadership of the
Imams.
[14]
Muslims believe that God
revealed his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the
angel Gabriel. For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.
[15] In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine
revelation—either directly from God or through angels.
[16] Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since
Adam preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of the one God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",
[17] and the Qur'an states that the
proper name ''Muslim'' was given by
Abraham.
[18]
As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in
Arabia in the early 7th century.
[19] Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls
Jews and
Christians "
People of the Book" (''ahl al-kitāb''), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the ''
Tawrat'' (
Torah) and the ''
Injil'' (
Gospels), had become
distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.
God
Main articles: Allah
Islam's fundamental theological concept is ''
tawhīd''—the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is ''Allāh''; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words ''
al-'' (the) and '' (deity, masculine form), meaning "the God" (''), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic ''Alāhā''.
[20] The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, ''tawhīd'' is expressed in the ''
shahadah'' (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that
Jesus was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the
Trinity, comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology,
Jesus is just a man and not the son of God;
[21] God is described in a chapter (''
sura'') of the Qur'an as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."
[22]
Qur'an
Main articles: Qur'an
Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central
religious text of Islam.
[23] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between the years 610 and his death on
July 6 632. The Qur'an was written down by Muhammad's companions (''
sahabah'') while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of
Abu Bakr, the first
caliph, and was standardized in the time of
Uthman, the third caliph. From textual evidence, modern Western academics find that the Qur'an of today has not changed over the years.
[24]
The Qur'an is divided into 114
suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 ''
āyāt'', or poetic verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.
[25] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".
[26] Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'', or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as ''
tafsir''.
[27]
The word ''Qur'an'' means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.
[28]
Angels
Main articles: Angels in Islam
Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for Angels (''malak'') means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (''malakh'') and Greek (''angelos''). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess
free will, and worship God in perfect obedience.
[29] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…"
[30]
Muhammad
Main articles: Muhammad
Muhammad (c.
570 –
July 6 632) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of
prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.
[31] For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his
companions.
[32]
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of
Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the ''
Hijra'' ("emigration") to the city of
Medina (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (''
Ansar'') and the Meccan migrants (''
Muhajirun''), Muhammad established his political and
religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the
Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the
Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of
Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.
[33] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless
Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the
Arabian peninsula.
[34]
In Islam, the "
normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the ''
Sunnah'' (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as
hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist
ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) established the importance of the Sunnah in
Islamic law, and Muslims were encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.
[35]
Resurrection and judgment
Main articles: Qiyama
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", ''
yawm al-Qiyāmah'' (also known as ''yawm ad-dīn'', "Day of Judgment" and ''as-sā`a'', "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and
tribulations preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the
hadith, and also in the commentaries of
Islamic scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes
bodily resurrection, a break from the
pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.
[36]
The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief,
usury and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (''
jannah'') as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (''ridwān'').
[17] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.
[38]
Predestination
Main articles: Predestination in Islam,
Adalah
In accordance with the Islamic belief in
predestination, or divine preordainment (''al-qadā wa'l-qadar''), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"
[39] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in ''al-Lawh al-Mahfūz'', the "Preserved Tablet".
[40]
The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (''Adalah''). This doctrine, originally developed by the
Mu'tazila, stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.
[41]
Duties and practices
Five Pillars
Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam
Rituals of the
Hajj (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the
Kaaba in Mecca.
Muslims performing
salah (prayer)
(Arabic: : اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.
[42] They are:
★ The '''
shahadah''', which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the ''shahadah'' to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.
[43]
★ '''
Salah''', or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the
Kaaba in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called
Adhan (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the
Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.
[44]
★ '''
Zakat''', or
alms-giving. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (''
sadaqah''). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a ''
khums'' tax, which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.
[45]
★ '''
Sawm''', or
fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.
[46]
★ The '''
Hajj''', which is the pilgrimage during the
Islamic month of ''
Dhu al-Hijjah'' in the city of
Mecca. Every
able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in
''Ihram'' clothing, which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the
Kaaba, touching the
Black Stone, running seven times between
Mount Safa and
Mount Marwah, and symbolically
stoning the Devil in
Mina. The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.
[47]
In addition to the ''khums'' tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is
jihad, which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is ''
Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf'', the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is ''
Nahi-Anil-Munkar'', the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.
[48]
Law
Main articles: Sharia,
Fiqh
The ''Sharia'' (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".
[49]
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and
foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines ''
hudud'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of
inheritance,
marriage, and
restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for
fasting,
charity, and
prayer. However, these
prescriptions and
prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies.
Islamic scholars (known as ''ulema'') have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.
[50]
''
Fiqh'', or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as ''
usul al-fiqh'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (''
ijma''), and analogical reasoning (''
qiyas''). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist
ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ''ar-Risālah''.
[51]
Religion and state
Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways.
Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the
1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an
Islamic republic led by the
Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini.
[52]
Etiquette and diet
Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "''
as-salamu `alaykum''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''
bismillah'' ("in
the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking.
Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring.
Islamic burial rituals include saying the ''
Salat al-Janazah'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood,
carrion, and
alcohol. All meat must come from a
herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as
halal food.
[53]
Jihad
Jihad means "to strive or struggle," and is considered the "
sixth pillar of Islam" by a minority of Muslim authorities.
[54]
The four major categories of jihad that are recognised are
Jihad against one's own self (self-perfection), Jihad of the tongue, Jihad of the hand, and Jihad of the sword. The term Jihad used without any qualifiers is generally understood to be referring to war on behalf of Islam.
[55] Within
Islamic jurisprudence Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible under Islamic law, and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the
defense or
expansion of the
Islamic state; the ultimate purpose of which is to establish the universal domination of Islam. Jihad of the sword is meant in ''sharia'' to be used as a last resort and it is declared against those who cause trouble to people, to Islamic values, or to an Islamic state.
[56] Within
Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the
defense or
expansion of the
Islamic state, the ultimate purpose of which is to establish the universal domination of Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against non-Muslims who refuse to convert to Islam or submit to Islamic rule.
[57] Jihad is perpetual in nature; in theory, there can be no permanent peace with non-Muslim states, only truces which can be repudiated when circumstances become favorable for the resumption of hostilities. It ceases only when Jews, Christians, and
Zoroastrians submit to the authority of Islam and agree to pay the ''
jizya'' (a
poll tax) and ''
kharaj'' (a land tax), and when
polytheists convert to Islam.
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (''fard kifaya''): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (
imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a
general mobilization.
For most
Shias,
offensive jihad can only be declared by a
divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended in his absence.
[58] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and
Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.
[59] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.
[60]
History
Main articles: Muslim history,
Spread of Islam
Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the
Islamic world. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the
Qur'an, an Islamic empire stretched from the
Atlantic Ocean in the west to
Central Asia in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like
Africa, the
Indian subcontinent, and
Southeast Asia. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the
Middle Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the
Ottomans and
Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century
new religious and political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.
[61]
Rise of empire (632–750)
Muhammad began preaching Islam at
Mecca before
migrating to
Medina, from where he united the
tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.
Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent
companion of Muhammad, nominated
Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first
caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that
Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by
Byzantine (or
Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the
Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".
[62]
The territory of the
Caliphate in the year 750
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by
Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("
Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into
Persian Empire and
Byzantine territories.
[63] When Umar was assassinated in 644,
the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the
first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by
Kharijites in 661. Following this,
Mu'awiyah, who was governor of
Levant, seized power and began the
Umayyad dynasty.
[64]
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as
Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the
Shi'a.
[65] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "
Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the
Maghrib as well as the
Al-Andalus (the
Iberian Peninsula, former
Visigothic Hispania) and the
Narbonnese Gaul. While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as
Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into
Sufism.
[66]
For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;
[67] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (
Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (''
mawali'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle
Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general
Abu Muslim, inaugurating the
Abbasid dynasty in 750.
[68] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "
Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.
[69]
Golden Age (750–1258)
Main articles: Islamic Golden Age
Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia
emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized
Muslim world where the Shia
Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the
Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.
[70] During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful
proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan
West Africa,
Inner Asia,
Volga Bulgaria and the
Malay archipelago.
The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The
major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni
Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist
al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.
[71] Philosophers
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and
Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian
Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.
[72] Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century.
Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.
[73]
Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in Christian Europe began to be reversed. The
Reconquista was launched against Muslim
principalities in
Iberia, and Muslim
Italian possessions were lost to the
Normans. From the 11th Century onwards a series of wars known as the
Crusades brought the Muslim world into conflict with
Christendom. Successful at first in their capturing of the
Holy land which resulted in the establishment of the
Crusader states, Crusader gains in the Holy Land were reversed by later Muslim generals such as
Saladin, who recaptured
Jerusalem during the
Second Crusade.
[74] The
Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbasid dynasty at the
Battle of Baghdad in 1258, which saw the Muslims overrun by the superior Mongol army. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier
Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250.
[75]
Ottomans and Islamic empires in India (1258–1918)
The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the
Ottoman empire (named after
Osman I) was established with a string of conquests that included the
Balkans, parts of
Greece, and western
Anatolia. In 1453 under
Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to
Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress
succumbed shortly thereafter, having been battered by superior Ottoman
cannonry.
[76]
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of
al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.
[77] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the
Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century
Persian poet
Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.
[23]
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite
Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as
the gates of Vienna in 1529.
[79] Many
Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the twelfth century. The prominent ones include the
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the
Mughal empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in
South Asia. Sufi saints like Hazrat
Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chisti,
Nizam-ud-din Auliya,
Shah Jalal,
Amir Khusro trained Sufi groups for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India.
Indo-Islamic architecture and art traditions also developed during this period. In the 18th century the
Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.
[80]
By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the
rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the
Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of
World War I.
[81]
Modern times (1918–present)
After
World War I losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European
protectorates or
spheres of influence. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of
Israel have assumed prominence.
[82]
The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the
Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and
Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called
Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the
Taliban), revolutionary movements replaced existing regimes with Islamist states. Transnational groups like
al-Qaeda have engaged in
terrorism to bring about the establishment of the global
caliphate.
Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and
human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".
[83]
Community
Main articles: Muslim world
Muslim percentage of population by country
Demographics
Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007, range from 900 million to 1.3 billion. Approximately 85% are
Sunni and 15% are
Shi'a, with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.
South Asia and
Southeast Asia contain the most populous Muslim countries, with
Indonesia,
Pakistan,
Bangladesh, and
India having more than 100 million adherents each.
[ Number of Muslim by country ] According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in
China.
[84] In the
Middle East, the non-Arab countries of
Turkey and
Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in
Africa,
Egypt and
Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.
[ Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries.[85]]
Mosques
Main articles: Mosque
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi`''). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[86]
Family life
The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[87] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a dowry (''mahr'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[88]
A man may marry up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may marry one man only. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as ''talaq'', which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[89] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these restrictions and other practices such as polygamy, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Islamist groups and regimes like the Taliban mostly seek to continue traditional law as applied to women.[90]
Calendar
Main articles: Islamic calendar
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.[91]
The year 1428AH coincides almost completely with 2007CE.
Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are ''Eid al-Fitr'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of ''Shawwal'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and ''Eid al-Adha'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[92]
Other religions
Main articles: Islam and other religions
The
Al-Aqsa Mosque congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.
According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by Adam.[93] At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.[94] In this view, Abraham, Moses, Hebrew prophets, and Jesus were all prophets of Islam, but their message and the texts of the Torah and the Gospels were corrupted by Jews and Christians. Similarly, children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to another faith by their parents.[95] The idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."[96] Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation of Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.[97]
Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as ''dhimmis''. Dhimmis must pay tribute (''jizya'') to the Islamic state, and as such are considered "protected peoples." Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a measure of communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to legal, social and religious restrictions as well as humiliating regulations meant to highlight the inferiority of non-Muslim subjects.[98] The status was extended to Zoroastrians and sometimes to polytheists (such as Hindus and Sikhs), but not to atheists or agnostics.[99] Those who live in non-Muslim lands (''dar al-harb'') are known as ''harbis'', and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ''ahl al-ahd''. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ''ahl al-amān''. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (''ahl al-hudna'') are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.[100][101] Apostasy is prohibited, and is punishable by death.[102][103]
Denominations
Main articles: Divisions of Islam
Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other Islamic sects.[104]
Sunni
Main articles: Sunni
Divisions of Islam
Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, ''as-Sunnah'' literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or madhhabs: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (''bidah''). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent Salafi movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.[105]
Shi'a
Main articles: Shi'a
The Shi'a, who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious leadership of infallible Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib. They believe that he, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To them, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.[106][107] Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.[108] Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (''), while the others are the Ismaili, the Seveners, and the Zaidiyyah.[109]
Sufism
Main articles: Sufism
Not strictly a denomination, Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[110] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified religious innovation. Most Sufi orders, or ''tariqas'', can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.[111]
Others
The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.[112]
The Yazidi, Druze, Ahmadiyya, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim religions either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late fifteenth century Punjab, incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.[113]
Criticism
Main articles: Criticism of Islam
The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are found in the writings of Christians like John of Damascus (born c. 676). In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.[114] Medieval Christian ecclesiastical writers emphatically denied the validity of Islamic beliefs and portrayed Muhammad as possessed by Satan. More recently, in the 19th century, the Orientalist scholar William Muir wrote harshly about the Qur'an.[115]
Modern critiques of Islam include accusations that it is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates. Critics such as Robert Spencer and Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qur'an; for example, they say that its contents both justify the ill-treatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.[116] Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.[117] Montgomery Watt, Edward Said, and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics, while Carl Ernst says that "Islamophobia" has played a part.[118] Notable Muslim apologists include Fazlur Rahman,[119] Syed Ameer Ali,[120] Ahmed Deedat,[121] and Yusuf Estes.[122]
See also
★ Islamic art
★ Islamic economics
★ Islamic ethics
★ Islamic literature
★ Islamic studies
★ Islam and modernity
★ Islamism
★ Islamization
★ Mohammedanism
★ List of Muslims
★ List of Muslim empires
★ List of notable converts to Islam
★ List of notable former Muslims
★ List of wars in the Muslim world
★ Timeline of Islamic history
★ Animal welfare in Islam
★ Children's rights in Islam
★ Prisoners rights in Islam
Notes
1.
2. Lane's lexicon
3. Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents
4. See:
★ Esposito (1996), p.41
★ Ghamidi (2001): Sources of Islam
5. See:
★ Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
★ Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
★ Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
★ F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
★
★
6. Esposito (2002b), p.17
7. See:
★ Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
★
8. See:
★ Esposito (2002b), p.21
★ Esposito (2004), pp.2,43
9. , ,
10. , ,
11. See:
★ ,
★
12. , ,
13.
14. See:
★ Farah (2003), p.109
★ Momen (1987), p.176
15. Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21
16. See:
★ Momem (1987), p.176
★
17.
18. See:
★
★ "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''
19. "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''
20. See:
★ "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
★
21. : Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.
22. See:
★
★ Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
★ Esposito (2004), p.22
★ Griffith (2006), p.248
★
23.
24. See:
★ William Montgomery Watt in ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p.32
★ F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
25. See:
★
★
26. Esposito (2004), p.79
27. See:
★ Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
★
28. See:
★ Teece (2003), pp.12,13
★ C. Turner (2006), p.42
★ : The word ''Qur'an'' was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
29. ,
30. See:
★
★ Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
★
★
31. See:
★ Esposito (1998), p.12
★ Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
★ F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
★
32. See:
★
★
33. See:
★ F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
★ Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28
34.
35. See:
★ ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666
★
★
36. See:
★ "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
★ : Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
★
37.
38. See:
★ Smith (2006), p.89; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565
★ "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
★
★
39. See:
★
★ D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' "
★ : The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
40. See:
★ Farah (2003), pp.119–122
★ Patton (1900), p.130
41. Momen (1987), pp.177,178
42. See:
★ Momem (1987), p.178
★
43. See:
★ Farah (1994), p.135
★ Momen (1987), p.178
★ "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''(2004)
44. See:
★ Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
★ Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
★ Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
★ Momen (1987), p.178
45. See:
★
★ Esposito (2004), p.90
★ Momen (1987), p.179
★
★
46. See:
★
★ Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
★
★ For whom fasting is mandatory
47. See:
★ Farah (1994), pp.145–147
★ Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
★
48. Momen (1987), p.180
49.
50. See:
★ Menski (2006), p.290
★
★
51. Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162
52. See:
★ Esposito (2004), p.84
★ Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845
★ Lewis (2003), p.100
53. See:
★
★ Curtis (2005), p.164
★ Esposito (2002b), p.111
★ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
★ Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws
★ Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer
★
54. Sources for the following are:
★ Esposito (2003), p.93
★ Merriam (1999) p.571
★ Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia p.419
55. Firestone (1999) p.17
56. See:
★ Firestone (1999) p.17
★
57.
58. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106
59. See:
★ Firestone (1999) p.17
★ "Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.
60. See:
★ Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
★ Esposito (2003), p.93
★
61. See:
★ Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817
★ Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56
62. See:
★ Holt (1977a), p.57
★ Hourani (2003), p.22
★ Lapidus (2002), p.32
★ Madelung (1996), p.43
★ Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
63. See
★ Holt (1977a), p.74
★
64. Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
65. Waines (2003) p.46
66. See:
★ Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
★
67. Hawting (2000), p.4
68. Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83
69. See:
★ Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
★ Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
★ Lapidus (2002), p.56
★ Lewis (1993), p.84
★
70. See:
★ Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
★
71. Lapidus (2002), p.86
72. See:
★ Lapidus (2002), p.160
★ Waines (2003) p.126,127
73. See:
★ Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
★ Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
★
74. Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310
75. See:
★ Lapidus (2002), p.292
★
76. See:
★ Holt (1977a), p.263
★ Lapidus (2002), p.250
★
77. Esposito (2004), pp.104,105
78.
79. See:
★ Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
★
80. See:
★ Lapidus (2002), p.572
★ Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
81. Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
82. Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835
83. See:
★ Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
★ Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830
84. International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)
85. See:
★ Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
★
Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents
★ Muslims in Europe: Country guide
★ Religion In Britain
86. See:
★
★
87. "al-Mar'a". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''
88.
★ Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
★ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
★ Esposito (1998) p. 79
89.
★ "Talak". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''
90.
★ Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
★
★
91. See:
★ Adil (2002), p.288
★ F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
★
92. Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
93. Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16
94. Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19
95. Friedmann (2003), p. 18
96. Friedmann (2003), p. 35
97. See:
★ Friedmann (2003), p. 35;
★ Lewis (1984), p. 39
98. See:
★ Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;
★ Friedmann (2003), p. 37;
99. Lewis (2001), p.273
100. Friedmann (2003), p. 55
101. "Aman", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''
102. A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.
103. "Murtadd", ''Encyclopedia of Islam''
104. See:
★ Esposito (2002b), p.2
★ Sunni and Shia Islam
105. See:
★ Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
★
★
106. See
★ Lapidus (2002), p.46
★
★
107. Imamat, by Naser Makarem Shirazi
108. See:
★ Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
★ Nasr (1994), p.466
109. See:
★ Kramer (1987), Syria’s Alawis and Shi‘ism pp.237–254
★ Shia branches
110. Trimingham (1998), p.1
111. See:
★ Esposito (2003), p.302
★ Malik (2006), p.3
★ B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
★ Afghanistan: A Country Study
112. See:
★ IBADI ISLAM: AN INTRODUCTION
★ J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
★
113. Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs"
114. See:
★ Novak (February 1999)
★ Sahas (1997), pp.76–80
★ Warraq (2003), p.67
115. See:
★ Mohammed and Mohammedanism Catholic Encyclopedia
★ What Is the Koran?
116. See:
★ Spencer (2005), p.358
★ Warraq (2000), p.103
★ Islam in Europe
★ Islamic Apostates' Tales—A Review of ''Leaving Islam'' by Ibn Warraq Andrew Bostom
117. Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another Richard Bernstein
118. See:
★ Ernst (2004), p.11
★ Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
★ Watt (1974), p.231
119. For example see ''Major Themes of the Qur'an'' by Fazlur Rahman in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.
120. For example see ''The Spirit of Islam'' by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface ''Mohammed and the Rise of Islam''.
121. Westerlund (2003)
122. Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images
References
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★ The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I), , Martin, Accad, Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations,
★ Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam, , Hajjah Amina, Adil, Islamic Supreme Council of America, 2002, ISBN 978-1930409118
★ Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World, , Akbar, Ahmed, I. B. Tauris, 1999, ISBN 978-1860642579
★ Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia, , Jonathan E., Brockopp, University of South Carolina press, 2003, ISBN 1570034710
★ A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature, , Dalya, Cohen-Mor, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0195133986
★ A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations, , Patricia A., Curtis, Blackwell Publishing Professional, 2005, ISBN 978-0813819464
★ African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design, , Ron, Eglash, Rutgers University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8135-2614-0
★ Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World, , Carl, Ernst, University of North Carolina Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8078-5577-4
★ Islam and Democracy, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-510816-7
★ Islam: The Straight Path, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0195112344
★ Muslims on the Americanization Path?, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 2000a, ISBN 0-19-513526-1
★ Oxford History of Islam, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 2000b, 978-0195107999
★ Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 2002a, ISBN 978-0195168860
★ What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 2002b, ISBN 0-19-515713-3
★ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-19-512558-4
★ Islam: The Straight Path, , John, Esposito, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0195182668
★ Islam: Beliefs and Observances, , Caesar, Farah, Barron's Educational Series, 1994, ISBN 978-0812018530
★ Islam: Beliefs and Observances, , Caesar, Farah, Barron's Educational Series, 2003, ISBN 978-0764122266
★ Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam, , Rueven, Firestone, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 019-5125800
★ Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition, , Yohanan, Friedmann, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0521026994
★ {{cite book | last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=Mizan | publisher=Dar al-Ishraq | year=2001 | id=
★ A Concise History of the Middle East, , Arthur, Goldschmidt, Jr., Westview Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0813342757
★ Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance, , Ruth Marie, Griffith, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006, ISBN 0801883709
★ The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750, , G. R., Hawting, Routledge, 2000, ISBN 0415240735
★ Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition, , Muhammad, Hedayetullah, Trafford Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1553698425
★ Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1, , P. M., Holt, Cambridge University Press, 1977a, ISBN 0521291364
★ Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2, , P. M., Holt, Cambridge University Press, 1977b, ISBN 0521291372
★ A History of the Arab Peoples, , Albert, Hourani, Belknap Press; Revised edition, 2003, ISBN 978-0674010178
★ Between Memory and Desire, , Stephen, Humphreys, University of California Press, 2005, ISBN 052-0246918
★ Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People, , Ahmed Nezar, Kobeisy, Praeger Publishers, 2004, ISBN 978-0313324727
★ The Origins of the Ottoman Empire, , Mehmed Fuad, Koprulu, SUNY Press, 1992, ISBN 0791408191
★ Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution, , Martin, Kramer, Westview Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0813304533
★ Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam, , Scott Alan, Kugle, Indiana University Press, 2006, ISBN 0253347114
★ A History of Islamic Societies, , Ira, Lapidus, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0521779333
★ The Jews of Islam, , Bernard, Lewis, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984, ISBN 0-7102-0462-0
★ The Arabs in History, , Bernard, Lewis, Oxford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-1928-5258-2
★ The Middle East, , Bernard, Lewis, Scribner, 1997, ISBN 978-0684832807
★ Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East, , Bernard, Lewis, Open Court, 2001, ISBN 978-0812695182
★ What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East, , Bernard, Lewis, Harper Perennial, 2003, ISBN 978-0060516055
★ The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, , Bernard, Lewis, Random House, Inc., New York, 2004, ISBN 978-0812967852
★ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate, , Wilferd, Madelung, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0521646960
★ Sufism in the West, , Jamal, Malik, Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0415274087
★ Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa, , Werner F., Menski, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0521858593
★ The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction, , Noor, Mohammad, Journal of Law and Religion,
★ An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism, , Moojan, Momen, Yale University Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0300035315
★ Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7), , Seyed Muhammad, Nasr, HarperCollins, 1994, ISBN 0-06067-700-7
★ The Mind of Maimonides, , David, Novak, First Things,
★ World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present, , Geoffrey, Parrinder, Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited, 1971, ISBN 0-87196-129-6
★ The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân, , Walter M., Patton, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures,
★ The Quest for Historical Muhammad, , F. E., Peters, International Journal of Middle East Studies,
★ Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians, , F. E., Peters, Princeton University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-691-11553-2
★ Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam, , Rudolph, Peters, Brill Academic Publishers, 1977, ISBN 90-04-04854-5
★ Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning, , Malise, Ruthven, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 01-92-80606-8
★ John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites, , Daniel J., Sahas, Brill Academic Publishers, 1997, ISBN 978-9004034952
The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence Oxford University Press Inc (USA), 1998
★ The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence, , Abdulaziz, Sachedina, Oxford University Press US, 1998, ISBN 0195119150
★ Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel), , Robert F., Seibert, Review of Religious Research,
★ The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy, , Michael Anthony, Sells, Columbia University Press, 2003, ISBN 0231126670
★ The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection, , Jane I., Smith, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0195156492
★ The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims, , Robert, Spencer, Prometheus Books, 2005, ISBN 978-1591022497
★ The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book, , Norman, Stillman, Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979, ISBN 1-82760-198-1
★ Shi'ite Islam, , Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn, Tabatabae, Suny press, 1979, ISBN 0-87395-272-3
★ Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam, , Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn, Tabatabae, Green Gold, 2002, ISBN 0-922817-00-6
★ Religion in Focus: Islam, , Geoff, Teece, Franklin Watts Ltd, 2003, ISBN 978-0749647964
★ The Sufi Orders in Islam, , John Spencer, Trimingham, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0195120582
★ The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar, , Arthur S., Tritton, Frank Cass Publisher, 1970, ISBN 0-7146-1996-5
★ Islam: the Basics, , Colin, Turner, Routledge (UK), 2006, ISBN 041534106X
★ Weber and Islam, , Bryan S., Turner, Routledge (UK), 1998, ISBN 0415174589
★ An Introduction to Islam, , David, Waines, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0521539064
★ The Quest for Historical Muhammad, , Ibn, Warraq, Prometheus, 2000, ISBN 978-1573927871
★ Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out, , Ibn, Warraq, Prometheus, 2003, ISBN 1-59102-068-9
★ The Formative Period of Islamic Thought, , W. Montgomery, Watt, University Press Edinburgh, 1973, ISBN 0-85-224254-X
★ Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, , W. Montgomery, Watt, Oxford University Press, 1974, ISBN 0-19-881078-4
★ Studies in Islamic Legal Theory, , Bernard G., Weiss, Brill Academic publishers, 2002, ISBN 9004120661
★ The Word of Islam, , John Alden, Williams, University of Texas Press, 1994, ISBN 0-292-79076-7
★ The Middle East, , Mary E., Williams, Greenhaven Pr, 2000, ISBN 0737701331
;Encyclopedias
★ '', 'Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History' ISBN 978-0974309101
★
★ '', 'The Columbia Encyclopedia' ISBN 978-1593392369
★
★ '', 'Encyclopedia of Christianity' ISBN 0-8028-2414-5
★ '', 'Encyclopedia of Christianity' ISBN 0-19-522393-4
★ '', 'Encyclopedia of the Future' ISBN 978-00289 
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