'Iran', (, ''ĪrÄn;''
pronunciation: ), officially the '
Islamic Republic of Iran' (,
transliteration: ''JomhÅ«rÄ«-ye EslÄmÄ«-ye ĪrÄn''), formerly known internationally as '
Persia', is a
Southwest Asian country located in the geographical territories of the
Middle East and
Southern Asia.
[3]
The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area, Iran is slightly smaller than the
United Kingdom,
France,
Spain and
Germany combined. It has a population of over seventy million people.
Iran borders
Armenia,
Azerbaijan, and
Turkmenistan to the north;
Afghanistan and
Pakistan to the east; and
Turkey and
Iraq to the west. In addition, it borders the
Persian Gulf, an important oil-producing area,
Gulf of Oman, and the
Caspian Sea. From these extensive borders, Iran is considered a key country that provides a bridge from the
Middle East to
South Asia.
Shi'a Islam is the state religion and
Persian the official language.
[4]
The
political system of Iran comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. It is based on the 1979
Constitution. The highest state authority is
the Supreme Leader, currently
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.
Iran as a land and a
nation has one of the oldest histories in the world, extending nearly 6,000 years, and throughout history, Iran has been of
geostrategic importance because of its central location in
Eurasia. Iran is a founding member of the
UN,
NAM,
OIC,
OPEC, and
ECO. Iran is a
regional power in Southwest Asia and occupies an important position in the world economy due to its large reserves of
petroleum and
natural gas.
[5] The name Iran is a
cognate of ''Aryan'' and literally means "Land of the
Aryans".
[6][7][8][9][10]
Etymology
Main articles: Etymology of Iran
The term ''Iran'' (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the
Proto-Iranian term ''AryÄnÄm'' first attested in
Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition.
[11] As in
Zoroaster's lifetime, differing dates for
Avestan have been proposed; scholarly consensus floats around
1000 BCE (roughly contemporary to the
Brahmana period of
Vedic Sanskrit). ''Ariya-'' and ''Airiia-'' are also attested as an ethnic designator in
Achaemenid inscriptions. The term ''Ä’rÄn'' from
Middle Persian ''Ä’rÄn'',
Pahlavi ''ʼyrʼn'', is found at the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of
Ardashir I at
Naqsh-e Rustam.
[12] In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ''Ä“rÄn'' (Pahlavi: ''ʼryʼn''), while in the
Parthian language inscription that accompanies it, Iran is mentioned as ''aryÄn''. In Ardashir's time ''Ä“rÄn'' retained this meaning, denoting ''the people'' rather than ''the state''.
Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ''Ä“rÄn'' to refer to the
Iranian peoples, the use of ''Ä“rÄn'' to refer to the empire is also attested by the early Sassanid period. An inscription of
Shapur I, Ardashir's son and immediate successor, apparently "includes in ''Ä’rÄn'' regions such as
Armenia and the
Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians."
[13] In
Kartir's inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic ''AnÄ“rÄn''.
13 Both ''Ä“rÄn'' and ''aryÄn'' comes from the
Proto-Iranian term ''AryÄnÄm'', (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of
Airyanem Vaejah is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) where Iran (''Ä’rÄn''), is modern-Persian of the word ''AryÄnÄ''.
Since the
Iranian Revolution of 1979, the official name of the country is "Islamic Republic of Iran." For the pre-1935 use of "Persia" as the western name for Iran, see
Iran naming dispute.
History
Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BC – 330 BC)
Main articles: History of Iran,
Zayandeh Rud civilization,
Jiroft civilization,
Elam,
Median Empire,
Achaemenid Empire
Dozens of
pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements, centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby
Mesopotamia.
[14]
The written history of Persia (Iran) begins around 3200 BCE with the
Proto-Iranian civilization, followed by the
Elamites.
Aryan, (
Proto-Iranian) tribes arrived in the third and second
millennium BCE, probably in more than one wave of emigration. The
Proto-Iranians are traced to the
Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a
Bronze Age culture of
Central Asia, where the Proto-Iranians first emerged following the separation of
Indo-Iranian tribes.
[15] Further division of Proto-Iranians into an "Eastern" and a "Western" group is attested in the form of
Avestan, an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of
Zoroastrian Avesta. And
Old Persian, which appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets, seals of the Achaemenid era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran,
Iraq,
Turkey and
Egypt.
Nomadic Iranian tribes settled across the Iranian plateau and by the 1st millennium BC,
Medes,
Persians,
Bactrians and
Parthians populated the western part, while
Cimmerians,
Sarmatians and
Alans populated the steppes north of the
Black Sea. The Iranian
Pashtuns and
Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern
India and in to what is now
Balochistan. Others, such as the
Scythian tribes spread as far west as the
Balkans and as far east as
Xinjiang
The establishing of the
Median dynasty (728–550 BC) culminated in the first Iranian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day, until
Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and
Persians leading to the
Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BC), and further unification between cultures.
After Cyrus's death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522–486 BC). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.
Avestan is an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the
Zoroastrian Avesta. Scholarly consensus floats around
1000 BC.
Zoroastrianism became the state religion under the Achamenid empire and later Iranian empires, until the 7th Century AD.
Under
Cyrus the Great and
Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point, ruling over most of the known world.
[16] Their greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first global superpower
[17][18][19], and was "a paragon of religious and cultural
tolerance".
[20]
The borders of the
Persian empire stretched from the
Indus and
Oxus Rivers in the East to the Mediterranean Sea in the West, extending through
Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt.
In 499BC, Athens lent support to a revolt by one of the cities along the cost of Anatolia,
Miletus, ruled by a Greek tyrant named
Aristagoras, which culminated in the sacking and burning of the city of
Sardis. This event escalated into what is known as the
Greco-Persian Wars, during which Persia conquered Thrace, Macedonia, then most of the Greek mainland (
Battle of Thermopylae), and razed Athens in 480BC.
However Greek victories on land at
Marathon and
Platea and at sea at
Salamis and
Mycale forced Persia to withdraw. Fighting continued across the Eastern Mediterranean area from
Cyprus to
Egypt until the
peace of Callias in 449BC.
The rules and ethics emanating from Zorasters teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on
human rights, banning of
slavery and
equality. Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled
Jewish people in
Babylon freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced into other
Abrahamic religions. The
Golden Age of Athens marked by
Aristotle,
Plato and
Socrates also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquility, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the
Near East and
Southeastern Europe proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered, and the standard of living for all people of the region improved.
[21]
Alexander of Macedon - referred to as "the accursed" in the
Zoroastrian Middle Persian ''
Book of Arda Viraz'' - invaded Achaemenid territory in 334 BCE, conclusively defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor
Darius III at the
Battle of Issus in 333 BCE. In 330 BCE, Alexander occupied Persepolis (and according to legend, had it destroyed) and Pasargadae, leaving them and the rest of the Pars province in control of one of his officers before moving on northwards. In the same year, Alexander occupied in quick succession Aspardana (present day
Isfahan), Ecbatana in Media (present day
Hamadan), Hecatompylos in Hyrancia (present day
Mazandaran), Susia in Parthia (in present day
North Khorasan). He then turned southwards and occupied Prophtasia in Drangiana (present day
Sistan). The next year, in 329 BCE, Alexander took the
satrapy capitals at
Kandahar in Arachosia, Kabura (
Kabul), Bactra (
Balkh) in Bactria, and finally Maracanda (
Samarkand) in Sogdiana before leaving imperial territory in 328-327. In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the
partitioning of the former empire after Alexander's death. A reunification would not occur until 700 years later, under the Sassanids (see below). Unlike the
diadochic Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a
vassalary system, the Sassanids - like the Achaemenids - had a system of governors (MP: ''shahrab'') personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government.
Third Persian Empire: Parthian Empire (248 BC – 224 AD)
Coin of Phraates IV. The inscription reads: Benefactor
Arsaces, civilized, friend of Greeks.
,
Seleucid Empire
Parthia was led by the
Arsacid dynasty, who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the
Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late third century BCE, and intermittently controlled
Mesopotamia between ca 150 BCE and 224 CE. These were the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (
Persia) and lasted five centuries.
After the conquests of
Media,
Assyria,
Babylonia and
Elam, the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were
Greek, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. An interesting detail is coinage: legends were written in the Greek alphabet, a practice that continued until the 2nd century AD, when local knowledge of the language was in decline and few people knew how to read or write the
Greek alphabet.
The empire of
Parthia, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent (''c.''
60 BC), superimposed over modern borders.
Parthia was the arch-enemy of the
Roman Empire in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond
Cappadocia (central
Anatolia). By using a heavily-armed and armored
cataphract cavalry, and lightly armed but highly-mobile
mounted archers, the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years".
[22] Rome's acclaimed general
Mark Antony led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36 BCE in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor
Augustus, Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of ''golden eagles'', the cherished standards of Rome's legions, captured from
Mark Antony, and
Crassus, who suffered "a disastrous defeat" at
Carrhae in 53 BCE.
[23]
During Parthian, and later
Sassanid era, trade on the
Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great
civilizations of
China,
Egypt,
Mesopotamia,
Persia,
Indian subcontinent, and
Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world.
Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of "the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life".
[24] The Parthians were
innovators of many architecture designs such as that of
Ctesiphon, which later on "influenced European
Romanesque architecture".
[25][26]
Fourth Persian Empire: Sassanid Empire (224 – 651 CE)
Main articles: Sassanid Empire,
Sassanid Art
The Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent under
Khosrau II.
The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by
Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals.
Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily.
Bust of
Shapur II the Great displays the craftsmanship commanded by Sassanid artisans.
The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as ''Erânshahr'' (or ''Iranshahr'', "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of
Iranians), with their capital at
Ctesiphon.
[27]
During their reign, Sassanid battles with the
Roman Empire caused such pessimism in
Rome that the historian
Cassius Dio wrote:
[28]
The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by
Ardashir I,
Shapur I, and
Shapur II.
[29]
Under the Sassanids, Persia
expanded relations with China, the
arts,
music, and
architecture greatly flourished, and centers such as the
School of Nisibis and
Academy of Gundishapur became world renowned centers of science and scholarship.
After roughly six hundred years of confrontation and rivalry with the
Roman Empire, raids from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanin and
Byzantine frontiers in which a war-exhausted Persia was defeated in the
Battle of al-Qâdisiyah, paving way for the
Islamic conquest of Persia.
From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652–1501 CE)
Main articles: Islamization in Iran,
Abbasid Caliphate,
Ilkhanate,
Timurid dynasty,
Mongol Empire,
Khwarezmian Empire,
Seljuk dynasty,
Buyid Dynasty,
Ghaznavid Empire
The location of the ancient Safavid Empire, an Iranian kingdom, c.1512.
After the
Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia was annexed into the
Arab Umayyad Caliphate. But the
Islamization of Iran was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of
Persian literature,
philosophy,
medicine and
art became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways",
[30] contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "
Islamic Golden Age".
It was the Persian general
Abu Moslem, who expelled the
Umayyads from
Damascus and helped the
Abbasid caliphs to conquer
Baghdad. The
Abbasid caliphs frequently chose their "
wazirs" (viziers) among Persians, and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in
822 CE, the governor of Khorasan,
Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of
Tahirids. And by the
Samanid era, Persia's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.
[31]
Attempts of
Arabization thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the
Shuubiyah became catalysts for Persians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders.
The cultural revival of the post-
Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of
Persian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the
ninth and
tenth centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the
Persian language, the language of the
Persians and the official language of Iran to the present day.
Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language.
Before the conquest, Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient
Indo-Iranian roots, were considerably influenced by
Zoroasters teachings. The Persians had been mainly
Zoroastrian, however, there were also large and thriving
Christian and
Jewish communities. The newly converted Iranian Muslims projected many of their own Persian moral and ethical values that predates the advent of
Islam, while recognizing Islam as their religion and the prophet's son in law,
Ali, as an enduring symbol of justice.
After an interval of silence Persians remained Persians and Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam.
Culturally,
politically, and religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new
Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of scientific and cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in
Arabic made a significant contribution. ''Persian Islam'' ''Islam-i Ajam'' was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the
Turks, first in
Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called
Turkey, as well as to
India and beyond. The
Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of
Vienna after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old
Iranian philosophy, the
Greek philosophy and with the development of
Islamic philosophy. The
Illumination School and the
Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia.
The movement continued well into the eleventh century, when
Mahmud-a Ghaznavi founded a vast empire, with its capital at
Isfahan and
Ghazna. Their successors, the
Seljuks, asserted their domination from the
Mediterranean Sea to
Central Asia. As with their predecessors, the
divan of the empire was in the hands of Persian
viziers, who founded the
Nizamiyya.
During this period,
hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during
the Renaissance.
[32]
In
1218, the eastern
Khwarazmid provinces of
Transoxiana and
Khorasan suffered a devastating
invasion by
Genghis Khan. During this period more than half of Persia's population were killed,
[33][34] turning the streets of Persian cities like
Neishabur into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".
[35] In a letter to King
Louis IX of France,
Holaku, one of the
Genghis Khan's grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Persia and the Caliphate.
[36] He was followed by yet another conqueror,
Tamerlane, who established his capital in
Samarkand.
[37]
The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as
Neishabur from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the
twentieth century, eight centuries later.
[38]
But both
Holaku,
Timur and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.
The birth of modern Iran: Rise of the Safavid Empire (1501 – 1920)
Main articles: Safavid Empire,
Qajar dynasty,
Afsharid dynasty,
Zand dynasty
Persia's first encompassing
Shi'a Islamic state was established under the
Safavid dynasty in 1501 by
Shah Ismail I. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of "
Shah Abbas The Great".
[39] The Shah swiftly moved to defeat the
Uzbeks,
Ottomans, and
Portuguese, bringing a flow of prosperity into Iranian cities.
The Safavids moved their capital from
Tabriz to
Qazvin and then to
Isfahan where their patronage for the arts propelled Persia into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even
a distinct style of architecture developed.
The defeat of
Shah Sultan Hossein by Afghan rebels marked the start of the downfall of the Safavid era in
1722. One year after the last Safavid monarch lost his throne in
1735,
Nader Shah successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the
Afsharid dynasty. He then staged an incursion into
India in 1738 securing the
Peacock throne,
Koh-i-Noor, and
Darya-ye Noor among other
royal treasures. His rule did not last long however, and he was assassinated in
1747.
The
Mashad based Afshar dynasty was succeeded by the
Zand dynasty in
1750, founded by
Karim Khan, who established his capital at
Shiraz. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity. The Afshar dynasty lasted three generations, until
Aga Muhammad Khan executed
Lotf Ali Khan (assisted by the young Zand king's betrayal by his chancellor), and founded his new capital in
Tehran, marking the dawn of the
Qajar dynasty in
1794. His successors however gradually transformed Iran into an arena for the rising colonial powers of
Imperial Russia and the
British Empire, which wielded great political influence in
Tehran under the subsequent
Qajarid kings. Yet in spite of
The Great Game, Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighboring states in the region.
Persia suffered
several wars with Imperial Russia during the
Qajar era, resulting in Persia losing almost half of its territories to
Imperial Russia and the
British Empire via the treaties of
Gulistan,
Turkmenchay, and
Akhal. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to
various protests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in
Persia's constitutional revoltution establishing
the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a
constitutional monarchy.
From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921 – 1979)
Main articles: Pahlavi dynasty,
Iranian Constitutional Revolution
With the rise of
modernization and encroachment of stronger Western powers in the late nineteenth century came the
Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911. Reformers hoped the constitution would strengthen Iran against
Imperial Russia and Britain by centralizing and modernizing it. Ultimately the constitution became law, but its provisions were seldom followed during most of its history.
In 1921, Cossack army officer
Reza Khan (known as
Reza Shah after assuming the throne) staged a
coup against the weakened
Qajar dynasty. An autocrat and supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern
industry,
railroads, and establishment of a national
education system. Reza Shah sought to balance the influence of Russia and Britain by seeking out assistance and technology from European powers traditionally not involved in Iranian affairs, but when
World War II started his closeness to Germany alarmed allied powers Russia and Britain, Germany's enemies.
In summer of 1941
Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to prevent Iran from allying with the Axis powers. The
Allies occupied Iran, securing a supply line to Russia, Iran's petroleum infrastructure, and forced the Shah to abdicate in favor of his son,
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1951, a nationalist politician, Dr.
Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected
Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran by
nationalizing the
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later
British Petroleum, BP) which controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and began plotting to depose Mossadegh. Members of the British Intelligence Service invited the
United States to join them, convincing U.S. President Eisenhower that Mossadegh was reliant on the
Tudeh (
Communist) Party to stay in power. In 1953, President Eisenhower authorized
Operation Ajax, and the CIA took the lead in overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a U.S.-friendly monarch; and for which the
U.S. Government apologized in 2000.
[40]
Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, and his wife, Queen Farah, prepare to depart after a visit to the United States
The CIA faced many setbacks, but the
covert operation soon went into full swing, conducted from the U.S. Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of
Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. Iranians were hired to protest Mossadegh and fight pro-Mossadegh demonstrators. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on
19 August 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power greatly strengthened and his rule became increasingly
autocratic in the following years. With strong support from the U.S. and U.K., the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency,
SAVAK.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's
White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General
Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to
Turkey, then to
Iraq and finally to
France. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.
Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979 – 1988)
Main articles: Iranian Revolution,
Iran-Iraq War
The
Iranian Revolution (also known as the
Islamic Revolution)
[ Islamic Revolution, Iran Chamber.][ Islamic Revolution of Iran, MS Encarta.][41] transformed Iran from a
monarchy under
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to an
Islamic republic under
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.
[ Encyclopædia Britannica.]
The revolution began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the
Shah.
[42] After strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, the
Shah fled the country in January 1979. On February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran, enthusiastically greeted by millions of Iranians.
[ Ruhollah Khomeini, Encyclopedia Britannica.] The
Pahlavi dynasty collapsed ten days later on
February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on
April 1,
1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.
[43] In December 1979 the country approved a
theocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini became
Supreme Leader of the country.
The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world,
[44] as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion.
[45] It produced profound change at great speed.
[46] It overthrew a regime thought to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services.
[47][48] And it replaced an ancient monarchy with a theocracy based on
Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or ''velayat-e faqih''). Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, it ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an 80-year-old exiled religious scholar from
Qom,"
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.
[Benard, ''"The Government of God"'' (1984), p. 18.]
For some the revolution was a era of heroism and sacrifice that brought forth the nucleus of a world Islamic state, "a perfect model of splendid, humane, and divine life… for all the peoples of the world."
[49] Other Iranians remember the revolution as a time when "for a few years we all lost our minds."
[50] They believe the revolution damaged
Iran's economy and its standing in the world, a blow from which it has yet to recover.
[51][Roy, ''Failure of Political Islam'' (1994), p. 193.]
Iran's relations with the
United States became deeply antagonistic during the revolution. On
November 4 1979, Iranian students
seized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a "den of spies."
[52] They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to
Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from
Khomeini to seize the embassy,
Khomeini nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success.
[53] While most of the
female and
African American hostages were released within the first months,
[54] the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the
Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate or
rescue were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the
Algiers declaration was agreed upon. The U.S. promised (among other things) in the accord to release Iranian assets that had been frozen, but as of 2007 those assets still remain frozen.
Iraqi leader
Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the
Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was
Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial
Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the
United Arab Emirates, the islands of
Abu Musa and the
Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On
September 22,
1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the
Iran-Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.
Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.
Tens of thousands of Iranian
civilians and
military personnel were killed when Iraq used
chemical weapons in its warfare.
Iraq was financially backed by
Egypt, the
Arab countries of the
Persian Gulf, the
Soviet Union and the
Warsaw Pact states, the
United States (beginning in
1983),
France, the
United Kingdom,
Germany,
Brazil, and the
People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran). All of these countries provided intelligence, agents for chemical weapons as well as other forms of military assistance to Saddam Hussein . Iran's principal allies during the war were
Syria,
Libya, and
North Korea.
With more than 100,000 Iranian victims
[55] of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war, Iran is the world's second-most afflicted country by
weapons of mass destruction— second only to
Japan. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian
human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.
[56][57][58][59]
Government and politics
Main articles: Politics and Government of Iran,
Foreign relations of Iran,
Supreme Leader of Iran,
President of Iran,
Majlis of Iran,
Council of Guardians,
Expediency Discernment Council,
Judicial system of Iran,
Assembly of Experts,
City and Village Councils of Iran
Political institutions of Iran.
The political system of the Islamic
Republic is based on the 1979
Constitution called the "'
Qanun-e Asasi'" ("Fundamental Law"). The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. '
The Supreme Leader of Iran' is responsible for
delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is ''Commander-in-Chief'' of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the
Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The
Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.
[ "Iran - The Constitution" ] The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.
After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the '
President of Iran' as the highest state authority. The President is elected by
universal suffrage for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the
Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the
Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president,
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was elected in a run-off poll in the
2005 presidential elections. His term expires in 2009.
The current '
legislature of Iran' is a
unicameral body. Before the
Iranian Revolution, the legislature was
bicameral, but the
upper house was removed under the new constitution. The ''
Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami'' (Islamic Consultative Assembly) comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts
legislation, ratifies international
treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the '
Council of Guardians'. The
Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the
Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the
Judiciary. The Council interprets the constitution and may
veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or ''
Sharia'' (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.
The '
Expediency Council' has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of '
Iran's Judiciary', who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against
national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by
clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving
lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.
The '
Assembly of Experts', which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the
Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.
Finally, '
local City Councils' are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.
'
Iran's foreign relations' are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and
non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the
United Nations, except for
Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the
United States since the
Iranian Revolution.
[60] Iran has come under
international sanctions since December 2006, because of its
nuclear programme.
Provinces and counties
Main articles: Provinces of Iran,
Counties of Iran
Iran is divided into 30
provinces (''ostÄn''), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostÄndÄr). The provinces are divided into counties (''
shahrestÄn''), and subdivided into districts (''
bakhsh'') and sub-districts (''dehestÄn'').
Provinces of Iran.
The map does not show the southern islands of
Hormozgan (#20 listed below):
Major cities
Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.
[61][62] The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.
Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of
Tehran,
Isfahan,
Ahvaz, and
Qom. The listed populations are from the
2006/
2007 (1385
AP) census
[63].
;Tehran (population 7,705,036)
After the revolution, Shahyad Tower was renamed
Azadi Tower (Freedom Tower).
is the capital and largest city of Iran and like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. Tehran is the hub of the country's
communication and
transport network. The city has numerous large museums, art centers, palace complexes and cultural centers and host 45% of Iran's industries.
;Mashhad (population 2,410,800)
Mashhad (also spelt
Mashad, literally "The place of martyrdom"), is located 850 kilometers (500 miles) east of
Tehran, and is one of the holiest
Shi'a cities in the world. It is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million at the center of the province of
Razavi Khorasan.
;Isfahan (population 1,583,609)
Isfahan or
EÅŸfahÄn, located about 340 km south of
Tehran, is the capital of
Isfahan Province and Iran's fourth largest city.
The
Naghsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by
UNESCO as a
World Heritage Site. The city also contains a wide variety of
Islamic architectural sites ranging from the eleventh to the nineteenth century.
;Tabriz (population 1,378,935)
Tabriz is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of
East Azarbaijan Province. Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of
Sahand south of the
Eynali mountain.
;Karaj (population 1,377,450)
Karaj is located in
Tehran province and is situated 20 km west of
Tehran, at the foot of
Alborz mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan
Tehran.
;Shiraz (population 1,204,882)
Shiraz is the capital of
FÄrs Province and is located in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains.
Shiraz is known as the city of Poetry, Wine and carpet production and flowers (such as Roses). It is also famous for its importance in the
history of Iran. It has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for more than a thousand years.
;Ahvaz (population 969,843)
The city of
Ahvaz, is the capital of the Iranian province of
KhÅ«zestÄn. It is built on the banks of the
Karun River and is situated in the middle of KhÅ«zestÄn Province. The city has an average elevation of 20 meters above sea level.
;Qom (population 951,918)
Qom (also known as Q'um or Kom) lies by road south-west of
Tehran and is the capital of
Qom Province and is built on the banks of the
Qom (River) and is considered to be a holy city in
Shi`a Islam, as it is the site of the shrine of
Fatema Mæ'sume, sister of Imam
`Ali ibn Musa Rida (Persian ''Imam Reza'', 789–816 CE). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage.
Geography and climate
Main articles: Geography of Iran
Iranian Cheetah
Iran is the
eighteenth largest country in the world after
Libya and before
Mongolia;
[64] Its area roughly equals the size of the
United Kingdom,
France,
Spain, and
Germany combined, about one-sixth the size of the
United States or slightly larger, in land mass, than the state of
Alaska.
[65][66] Its borders are with
Azerbaijan (432 km/268 mi) and
Armenia (35 km/22 mi) to the northwest; the
Caspian Sea to the north;
Turkmenistan (992 km/616 mi) to the northeast;
Pakistan (909 km/565 mi) and
Afghanistan (936 km/582 mi) to the east;
Turkey (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the
Persian Gulf and the
Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000
km² (approximately 636,300
mi² )
Most of Iran is situated on the
Iranian Plateau with the exception of the coast of the
Caspian Sea and
Khuzestan. Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged
mountain ranges that separate various
basins or
plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the
Caucasus,
Zagros and
Alborz Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point,
Mount Damavand at 5,604
m (18,386 ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the
Hindu Kush. The eastern part consists mostly of
desert basins like the saline
Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, located in the north-central portion of the country, and the
Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some
salt lakes. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. Except for some scattered
oases, such as
Tabas, these deserts are uninhabited.
The only large
plains are found along the coast of the
Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the
Shatt al-Arab river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the
Strait of Hormuz and the
Sea of Oman.
Iran's
climate is mostly
arid or
semiarid, to
subtropical along the Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29
°C (84
°F). Annual precipitation is 680
mm (27
in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100 °F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to fourteen inches).
Economy
The
rial is Iran's official currency
Tehran was one of the first cities in Iran which was modernized in the
Pahlavi era. It currently hosts 45% of Iran's large industries.
Kish Island is a free-trade zone, which is quickly becoming a major tourist destination.
Iran's economy is a mixture of
central planning,
state ownership of oil and other large
enterprises, village
agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. Its economic
infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by
inflation and
unemployment.
[67] In the early twenty-first century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (
mining and manufacturing) and
agriculture. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000–2004. In 2006 the GDP was estimated at $193.5 billion ($599.2 billion at PPP), or $2,440 per capita ($8,700 at
PPP).
[68] Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed.
The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many
dams throughout the country in recent years, large-scale
irrigation schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like
dates,
flowers, and
pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the
1990s. Although successive years of severe
drought in 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially,
agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census.
Iran's major commercial partners are
China,
Germany,
South Korea,
France,
Japan,
Russia and
Italy. Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including
Syria,
India,
Cuba,
Venezuela, and
South Africa. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with
Turkey and
Pakistan and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and
Central Asia, much like the
European Union called
ECO. Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of
foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones in
Chabahar,
Qeshm and
Kish Island.
The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by
investing revenues in areas like
automobile manufacturing,
aerospace industries, consumer
electronics,
petrochemicals and
nuclear technology. Iran has also developed a
biotechnology,
nanotechnology, and
pharmaceuticals industry. The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian
budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to
large-scale state subsidies, totaling more than $40 billion per year, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.
[69]
Energy
Main articles: Energy in Iran,
Ministry of Petroleum of Iran,
Nuclear programme of Iran
As a further drive toward diversification of energy sources, Iran has also established wind farms in several areas, this one near
Manjeel.
Iran ranks second in the world in
natural gas reserves and third in
oil reserves. In 2005 Iran spent US$4 billion dollars on fuel imports, because of
contraband and inefficient domestic use.
[70] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day in 2005, compared with the peak of 6 million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry
infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory
wells were drilled in 2005.
In 2004, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new
hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional
coal- and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75 percent was based on natural gas, 18 percent on oil, and 7 percent on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first
wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first
solar thermal plant was to come online in 2009.
Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused
electric power demand to grow by 8 percent per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants financed by independent power producers, including those with
foreign investment backing, and by adding hydroelectric and
nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first
nuclear power plant at
Bushehr, built with assistance from
Russia, was not online by 2006. In 2005, Iran’s electricity
imports were greater than its
exports by about 500 million kilowatt-hours; exchanges were made with all neighboring countries except Iraq.
[71]
Industrial production
The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Nowadays, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite
restrictions imposed by foreign countries. However, all nationalized industries such as the
bonyads have often been managed in the worse way, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Today, the government is trying to
privatize these industries, such as
Damavand Mineral water company or some down stream industries of the
National Iranian Oil Company, and despite some successes, there are still several problems to be overcome such as the lagging corruption with the public sector (and therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness.
Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology and petrochemicals.
Tourism
:''See also: ''
The
tourist industry declined dramatically during the war with Iraq in the 1980s but has subsequently revived. The majority of the 300,000 tourist
visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian
Muslims, who presumably intended to visit important
pilgrimage sites in
Mashhad and
Qom. About 1,659,000 foreign
tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from
Asian countries, including the republics of
Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the
European Union and
North America. Several organized tours from
Germany,
France, and other
European countries come to Iran annually to visit
archaeological sites and
monuments. The government reported that in 2004 some 4 million tourists, including over 2 million Iranians on vacation, spent nearly US$2 billion in Iran, an increase of 10 percent over 2003. However, in the early 2000s the industry still faced serious limitations in
infrastructure,
communications, regulatory
norms, and personnel
training.
[71]
Iran currently ranks 68th in
tourism revenues worldwide. Iran with attractive natural and historical sites is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world. Close to 1.8 percent of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10 percent in the next five years.
[73] Iranian
hospitality is one of the unique and distinctive features of its people.
Demography
Main articles: Demography of Iran,
Iranian peoples,
Health care in Iran
Demography of Iran (2002).
Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the
Persian culture.
Persians, the founders of
Ancient Persia, constitute the majority of the
population. Seventy percent of present-day Iranians are
Iranic peoples, native speakers of
Indo-European languages who are descended from the
Aryan (
Indo-Iranians) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BCE. The majority of the population speaks one of the
Iranian languages, in addition to the official language,
Persian. The main ethnic groups are
Persians (51%),
Azeris (24%),
Gilaki and
Mazandarani (8%),
Kurds (7%),
Arabs (3%),
Baluchi (2%),
Lurs (2%),
Turkmens (2%),
Qashqai,
Armenians,
Persian Jews,
Georgians,
Assyrians,
Circassians,
Tats,
Pashtuns and others (1%).
[74]
Ethnic diversity of Iran.
Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's
birth rate has dropped significantly.
[75] Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes, by the year 2050, above 90 million.
[76][77] More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 79%.
[78]
The number of
Iranian citizens abroad is estimated at some four million people who emigrated to
North America,
Europe, and
Australia, mostly after the
Iranian revolution in
1979. Iran also hosts one of the largest
refugee population in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from
Afghanistan and
Iraq. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the
UNHCR and Afghan officials for their
repatriation.
[79]
Religious distribution in Iran.
Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the
Shi'a branch of
Islam, the official state religion, and about 8% belong to the
Sunni branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim
religious minorities, including
Bahá'Ãs,
Mandeans,
Hindus,
Yezidis,
Yarsanis,
Zoroastrians,
Jews, and
Christians.
The latter three
minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the ''
Majles'' (Parliament). However the
Bahá'à Faith, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the
persecution of Bahá'Ãs has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.
[80][81] Currently, the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant
human rights violations, despite efforts by human right activists, writers,
NGOs and some political parties. Human rights violations include governmental impunity, restricted
freedom of speech,
gender inequality, execution of
minors, and in some cases torture.
[82]
According to the
Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to
social security that covers
retirement,
unemployment, old age,
disability,
accidents, calamities,
health and medical treatment and
care services. This is covered by
public revenues and income derived from public contributions. The
World Health Organization in the last report on health systems ranks Iran's performance on health level 58th, and its overall
health system performance 93rd among the world's nations.
[83]
Military
Iranian-made
Shafaq strike/trainer jet.
,
Iranian defense industry
The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of
armed forces: the regular forces
Islamic Republic of Iran Army,
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force,
Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the
Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totalling around 900,000 trained troops.
[84]
Iran also has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the
Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members, and a further 11 million men and women who could be mobilized
[85] This is the largest number of troop mobilization in the world.
Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. Since 1992, it has produced its own
tanks,
armored personnel carriers,
guided missiles,
submarines, and
fighter planes.
[86] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as
Fajr-3 (MIRV) missile,
Hoot,
Kowsar,
Zelzal,
Fateh-110,
Shahab-3, and a variety of
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
The
Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced
ballistic missile. It is a domestically-developed and produced
liquid fuel missile with an unknown range. The
IRIS solid-fuelled missile is a program which is supposed to be Iran's first missile to bring
satellites into orbit. In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the
Persian Gulf nations.
[87] Iran's military doctrine is to
defend its territorial integrity only.
[88]
Culture
Miniature painting by Mohammad Tajvidi on the cover of the
Divan of
Hafez ("Hafez's Anthology"), published 1969.
Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the
Middle East and
Central Asia, with
Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium CE, and the language of religion and the populace before that.
The Iranian New Year (
Norouz) is celebrated on
March 21 from
Spain in the west to
Kazakhstan in the east. It is celebrated as the first day of spring. Norouz was nominated as one of
UNESCO's
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.
[90]
Iranian customs and traditions often seem complex to the foreigner, but after further study reveal a rich and often intensely warm characteristic. For example, respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners, remain highly visible parts of
Iranian etiquette, while the highly familial nuclear structure of Iran's society is in stark contrast to many western societies.
The Sassanid era, encompassing the length of the
Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanid times,
[91] their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe,
[92] Africa,
[93] China and India
[94] and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.
[95] This influence carried forward to the
Islamic world. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance.
[92] Most of what later became knows as Islamic learning, including
philology,
astronomy,
literature,
history,
geography,
jurisprudence,
philosophy,
medicine,
architecture,
art and the
sciences were taken from the Sassanid Persians in to the broader Muslim world.
[97][98]
The
Cyrus Cylinder remains "the world's oldest
human rights declaration"
, predating the
Magna Carta by one millennium
[20], and women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society. These women are the inheritors of a heritage in which women
commanded armies,
led administrations,
ruled empires,
ruled kingdoms,
supported the arts,
became heroes, and even
served as deities in ancient beliefs. The state also actively monitors the
Internet, which has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of
bloggers.
[101]
Persian language
Main articles: Persian language
Persian is an
Iranian tongue be
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