INVENTIONS IN THE MUSLIM WORLD
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A significant number of 'inventions' were produced 'in the Muslim world', many of them with direct implications for Fiqh related issues. Most of these inventions were invented in the Middle Ages, especially during the Islamic Golden Age.
Main articles: Islamic astronomy
Muslim astronomers developed a number of astronomical instruments, including several variations of the astrolabe, originally invented by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE, but with considerable improvements made to the device in the Muslim world.
★ Brass astrolabe by Muhammad al-Fazari.[1]
★ Earliest surviving astrolabe in 315 AH (927-928 CE).
★ Mechanical geared astrolabe by Ibn Samh[2] and
★ Orthographical astrolabe by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« in the 11th century.Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
★ "Saphaea" by AbÅ« IshÄq IbrÄhÄ«m al-ZarqÄlÄ« (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain.
★ Linear astrolabe ("staff of al-Tusi") by Sharaf al-DÄ«n al-TÅ«sÄ«.[3]
★ Spherical astrolabe in the 14th century.
★ Equatorium by AbÅ« IshÄq IbrÄhÄ«m al-ZarqÄlÄ« (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain ''circa'' 1015.
★ Planisphere by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« in the 11th century.
★ Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer with gear train and gear-wheels by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.[4]
★ Fixed-wired knowledge processing machine by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '9' (1), p. 63-70 [64].
★ Astrolabe with calendar computer and gear-wheels by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[5]
★ Oldest surviving complete mechanical geared machine by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[6][7]
★ Quadrant in Iraq.
★ Sine quadrant and horary quadrant in 9th century Baghdad.David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., ''Astronomy before the telescope'', p. 167-168. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7.
★ Sextant by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in Ray, Iran in 994.[8]
★ Astrometric device in Islamic Spain around 1015.
★ Star chart by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni in the 11th century.
★ Hodometer by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni.
★ Celestial globe in the 11th century.
In 9th century Islamic Spain, Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firnas) invented a primitive version of the parachute.Poore, Daniel. A History of Early Flight. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1952.Smithsonian Institution. Manned Flight. Pamphlet 1990.[9][10]
John H. Lienhard described it in ''The Engines of Our Ingenuity'' as follows:
Shortly afterwards, Abbas Ibn Firnas built the first hang glider, which may have also been the first manned glider. Knowledge of Firman and Firnas' flying machines spread to other parts of Europe from Arabic references.
According to Philip Hitti in ''History of the Arabs'':
Ibn Firnas' hang glider was the first to have artificial wings, though the flight was eventually unsuccessful. According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi was the first aviator to have made a successful flight with artificial wings between 1630-1632.Arslan Terzioglu (2007). "The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History", ''The Turks'' (ed. H. C. Guzel), p. 804-810.
According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Lagari Hasan Çelebi launched himself in the air in a rocket, which was composed of a large cage with a conical top filled with gunpowder. The flight was accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of Ottoman Emperor Murad IV's daughter in 1633. He is said to have made a soft landing in the Bosporus by using the wings attached to his body after the gunpowder was consumed and was rewarded by the sultan with a valuable military position in the Ottoman army. The flight was estimated to have lasted about twenty seconds and the maximum height reached around 300 metres.
In ancient times, Euclid and Ptolemy believed that the eyes emitted rays which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that rays of light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who is regarded as the "father of optics".[11] He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one, with his development of the scientific method. The word "camera" comes from the Arabic word ''qamara'' for a dark or private room.
Ibn al-Haytham first described pinhole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters.
Ibn al-Haytham worked out that the smaller the hole, the better the picture, and set up the first camera obscura, a precursor to the modern camera.
Main articles: Alchemy (Islam)
Distillation was known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but chemists during the Islamic Golden Age made significant advances to the techniques of distillation and developed several different variations of it.
★ Liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration by Abu Musa JÄbir ibn HayyÄn (Geber) in the 9th century.
★ Steam distillation by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.
★ Alembic and still by Abu Musa JÄbir ibn HayyÄn (Geber) in the 9th century.Will Durant (1980). ''The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4)'', p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002.
★ Retort by Abu Musa JÄbir ibn HayyÄn.[12]
★ Thermometer and air thermometer by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.[13]
★ Conical measure by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« in the 11th century.[14][15]
★ Laboratory flask and pycnometer by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.
★ Hydrostatic balance and steelyard by al-Khazini in 1121.Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 346.
Ahmad Y Hassan wrote:
Other chemical substances invented by Muslims include:
★ Sulfuric acid, originally coined as ''oil of vitriol'', by Jabir ibn Hayyan, the chemical's probable discoverer.[16]
★ Distilled alcohol by Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century.Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
★ Uric acid and nitric acid by Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) in the 9th century.
★ Medicinal alcohol in the 10th century.
★ The distillation of petroleum by al-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th century Baghdad.Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", ''Saudi Aramco World'', January-February 1995, p. 20-27.
★ Kerosene and Kerosene lamp by al-Razi (Rhazes).
★ Essential oil by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.
★ Petrol by Muslim chemists.[17]
★ Hygienic cosmetics by Muslim chemists.The invention of cosmetics. ''1001 Inventions''.
★ Dyestuff by Muslim chemists.Dunlop, D.M. (1975), "Arab Civilization", ''Librairie du Liban''
★ At least 2,000 medicinal substances.S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '51' (1-2), p. 47-50.
Will Durant wrote in ''The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith'':
Robert Briffault wrote in ''The Making of Humanity'':
★ Coffee by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia.
★ Sherbet, the first juiced soft drink, and a variety of juices called ''sharab''.The World's First Soft Drink. 1001 Inventions, 2006.
★ Recipes for drink syrups that can be kept outside the refrigerator for weeks or months.
★ Modern recipe for soap, combining vegetable oils (such as olive oil) with sodium hydroxide and aromatics (such as thyme oil), by al-Razi (Rhazes).
★ Soap bar by al-Razi (Rhazes).
★ Sodium Lye (''Al-Soda Al-Kawia''), Perfumed and colored soaps, and liquid and solid soaps by Muslim chemists.
★ Recipes for soaps, such as ones made from sesame oil, potash, alkali, lime, and molds, leaving hard soap (soap bar).
★ Shampoo by the Bengali Muslim Sake Dean Mahomet in 1759.
★ Perfume usage recorded in 7th century Arabian Peninsula.
★ Miswaak by Muhammad in 7th century Arabian Peninsula.
★ Perfume industry established by Geber (Jabir) (b. 722, Iraq) and al-Kindi (b. 801, Iraq).
★ Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil.Levey, Martin (1973), "Early Arabic Pharmacology", ''E.J. Brill: Leiden'', ISBN 90-04-03796-9.
★ Al-Kindi carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products.
★ Al-Kindi elaborated a vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
★ The preparation of a perfume called ''ghaliya'', which contained musk, amber and other ingredients, and the use of various drugs and apparatus, by al-Kindi.
★ Extraction of fragrances through steam distillation by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.
★ Introduction of new raw ingredients in perfumery.
★ Perfumery produced from different spices, herbals, and other fragrance materials.
★ Introduction of jasmine from South and Southeast Asia, and citrus fruits from East Asia in modern perfumery.
★ Cheap mass production of incenses.
★ Musk and floral perfumes in the 11th-12th century Arabian Peninsula.
The elephant clock described by al-Jazari in 1206 is notable for several innovations. It was the first clock in which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of time (in this case, a humanoid robot striking the cymbal and a mechanical bird chirping), the first mechanism to employ a flow regulator, and the earliest example of a closed-loop system in a mechanism.[18]
In ancient times, water clocks were used, which were used for millennia in ancient China and India. This changed when Muslims invented the first mechanical clocks, including weight-driven clocks and scribe clocks.
Weight-driven mechanical clocks were produced by Muslim engineers in Spain, and this knowledge was transmitted to other parts of Europe through Latin translations of Islamic texts on mechanics. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories. Al-Jazari invented some of the first mechanical clocks, driven by water and weights, including a water-powered scribe clock. This water powered portable clock was a meter high and half a meter wide. The scribe with his pen was synonymous to the hour hand of a modern clock. This is an example of an ingenious water system by al-Jazari.Donald Routledge Hill (1996), ''A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times'', Routledge, p.224.[19] Al-Jazari also invented water clocks with oil lamps and automatic clocks. Al-Jazari's famous water-powered scribe clock was reconstructed successfully at the Science Museum (London) in 1976.
According to a 1202 manuscript written by Ridhwan al-Sa’ati, Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad b. Naser b. Saghir b. Khalid al-Kaysarani contructed the first striking clock in 1154 as part of a clock tower, similar to the Big Ben, near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria.[20]
According to Will Durant, Abbas Ibn Firnas invented a watch-like device in the 9th century which kept accurate time.
Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote that Abbas Ibn Firnas was the first to produce glass from stones, although this probably referred to making glass from sand, a process used from 2,500 B.C. in the Middle East. Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", ''Technology and Culture'' '2' (2), pp. 97-111.
The parabolic mirror was invented by Ibn al-Haytham and described in his ''Book of Optics'' (1011-1021).
The early Muslim Arab Empire was ahead of its time regarding water cleaning systems and also had advanced water transportation systems resulting in better agriculture, something that helped in issues related to Islamic hygienical jurisprudence.[21]
Al-Jazari invented machines for raising water and water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata in the 12th century.
Al-Jazari's invention of the crankshaft (and the crank mechanism) is considered the most important single mechanical invention after the wheel, as it transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion, which is central to much of the machinery in the modern world, including the internal combustion engine.
The connecting rod was also invented by al-Jazari, and was used in a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine he developed in 1206, in two of his water raising machines.Ahmad Y Hassan. The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine.
A flywheel is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine. Ibn Bassal of Islamic Spain pioneered the use of the flywheel in the chain pump (saqiya) and noria.[22]
Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote that Abbas Ibn Firnas was the inventor of an early metronome.
Paper was introduced into the Muslim world by Chinese prisoners after the Battle of Talas. Muslims made several improvements to papermaking and built the first paper mills in Baghdad, Iraq, as early as 794. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.[23]
Ibn Ismail Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (1136-1206) created the first recorded designs of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[24]
A segmental gear is "a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."[25] Professor Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote:
Caliph al-Mamun had a silver and golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 827, which had the features of an automatic machine. There were metal birds that sang automatically on the swinging branches of this tree built by Muslim engineers at the time.[26]
The Abbasid Caliph al-Muktadir also had a golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 915, with birds on it flapping their wings and singing.[27]
In 1551, the Egyptian engineer Taqi al-Din described the first practical steam turbine as a prime mover for rotating a spit. In his book, ''Al-Turuq al-saniyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya'' (''The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines''), completed in 1551 AD (959 AH), Taqi al-Din wrote:[28]
In 1206, al-Jazari demonstrates the first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion, the first suction pipes and suction piston pump, and one of the earliest valve operations, when he invented a two cylinder reciprocating suction piston pump, which seems to have had a direct significance in the development of modern engineering. This pump is driven by a water wheel, which drives, through a system of gears, an oscillating slot-rod to which the rods of two pistons are attached. The pistons work in horizontally opposed cylinders, each provided with valve-operated suction and delivery pipes. The delivery pipes are joined above the centre of the machine to form a single outlet into the irrigation system. This pump is remarkable for three reasons:Ahmad Y Hassan. The Origin of the Suction Pump - Al-Jazari 1206 A.D.
#The earliest known use of a true suction pipe in a pump
#The first application of the double-acting principle
#The first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion
For these reasons, this invention is considered important to the development of the steam engine and of modern reciprocating pumps.
Ventilators were invented in Egypt and were widely used in many houses throughout Cairo since the early Middle Ages. These ventillators were later described in detail by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in 1200.[29]
Windmills were first used in eastern Persia (Sistan) by the 9th century, as described by Muslim geographers. These were verticle axle windmills, which had long vertical shafts with rectangle shaped blades.[30] The authenticity of an earlier anecdote of a windmill involving the second caliph Umar (634-644 AD) is questioned on the grounds of being a 10th century amendment.[31] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn or draw up water.
In the 9th century, the BanÅ« MÅ«sÄ brothers invented a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their ''Book of Ingenious Devices''. Some of these inventions include:
★ ValveOtto Mayr (1970). ''The Origins of Feedback Control'', MIT Press.
★ Float valve
★ Feedback controller
★ Automatic flute playerTeun Koetsier (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", ''Mechanism and Machine theory'' '36', p. 590-591.
★ Programmable machine
★ Trick devices
★ Self-trimming lamp (Ahmad ibn MÅ«sÄ ibn ShÄkir)
Along with his inventions above, al-Jazari also designed and constructed a number of other automata, such as kitchen appliances and musical automata powered by water (see one of his works at The Automata of Al-Jazari). Al-Jazari also invented water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata.
Al-Jazari described over fifty mechanical devices in six different categories, along with construction drawings. Along with his inventions above, some of the other mechanival devices he described include:Al-Jazari, ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fà ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya'', translated by P. Hill (1973). Springer.[32][33]
★ Combination locks
★ Hand washing device
★ Accurate calibration of orifices
★ Lamination of timber to reduce warping
★ Static balancing of wheels
★ Use of paper models to establish a design
★ Casting of metals in closed mould boxes with green sand
★ Trick drinking vessels
★ Phlebotomy measures
★ Linkage
★ Hydraulic devices
★ Water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata
★ Water pumps
★ Water level
★ Constructions of pots and pans for wine making
★ Construction of ewers and bowls for use as cups
★ Pools and fountains
★ Devices able to elevate water from shallow wells or flowing rivers
★ Several musical instruments
★ Other machines working by water
★ Other sundry mechanisms
Several manuscripts on mechanics and automatic machine construction were also available in various libraries in Istanbul.
Main articles: Islamic medicine
★ Modern oral and inhalant anesthesia by Muslim anesthesiologists.
★ Surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face, by Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Zuhr in Islamic Spain.
★ Medical and anesthetic use of Opium by Avicenna.
★ Mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics by al-Razi (10th century).
★ Application of purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent by Muslim physicians and surgeons in the 10th century.
★ Utilization of special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery by surgeons in Islamic Spain.
★ Specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period, in Córdoba, Spain.
★ Drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases, and the use of practical experience and careful observation, by al-Razi, Avicenna, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Qasim, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn al-Nafis, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl.
★ The word "drug" is derived from Arabic.
★ Chemotherapeutical drugs in the Muslim world.
★ Specific substances to destroy microbes, and the application of sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite.
★ Medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation, and the first distillation devices for use in chemistry manufactured on a large scale, in the 10th century.
★ Alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.
★ Plaster by Abu al-Qasim (Abucasis) in 1000.[34]
★ Tracheotomy by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.
★ The medical procedure of inoculation in the medieval Muslim world, later followed by the first smallpox vaccine in the form of cowpox, invented in Turkey in the early 18th century.
★ At least 2,000 medicinal substances.
The following surgical instruments and techniques were developed or improved in the Muslim world.
★ Injection syringe by the Iraqi surgeon, Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, in the 9th century, using a hollow glass tube and suction to extract and remove cataracts from patients' eyes.
★ Over 200 surgical instruments were listed by Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) in the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), many of which were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced.
★ injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili.
★ Use of catgut for internal stitching, by Abu al-Qasim.
★ Forceps by Abu al-Qasim in the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), for extracting a dead fetus.[35]
★ Ligature, by Abu al-Qasim in the ''Al-Tasrif'', for the arteries in lieu of cauterization.
★ Surgical needle by Abu al-Qasim in his ''Al-Tasrif''.A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '68', Januray-February 2006.
★ Scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, by Abu al-Qasim in his ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000).[36]
★ Bone saw by Abu al-Qasim.
After the spread of gunpowder from China to the Muslim world, Muslim engineers developed some of their own weapons for gunpowder warfare.
In the 12th century, the Seljuqs had facilities in Sivas for manufacturing war machines. Ballistic weapons were manufactured in the Muslim world since the time of Kublai Khan in the 13th century. According to Chinese sources, two Muslim engineers, Alaaddin and Ismail (d. 1330), built machines of a ballistic-weapons nature before the besieged city of Hang-show between 1271-1273. Alaaddin's weapons also played a major role in the conquest of several other Chinese cities. His son Ma-ho-scha also developed ballistic weapons. Ismail (transliterated as ''I-ssu-ma-yin'') was present in the Mongol siege of Hsiang-yiang, where he built a war machine with the characteristics of a ballistic weapon. Chinese sources mention that when this war machines were fired, the earth and skies shook, the cannons were buried seven feet into the ground and destroyed everything. His son Yakub also developed ballistic war machines.
The ''Nesri Tarihi'' in the 15th century states that the Ottoman army used cannons from at least 1421-1422.
Ala'eddin is honoured in the official history of China's Yuan Dynasty, for having constructed the counterweight trebuchet used with gunpowder for Kublai Khan.[37]
Medieval French reports suggest that Muslim engineers used explosives against the Sixth Crusade army led by Ludwig IV, Landgrave of Thuringia in the 13th century.
In the 12th century, a primitive gun that shoots bullets, and later Aydinogullari using using guns firing bullets using springs and which are audible, show that guns were invented by Muslims in its primitive form. The ''Nesri Tarihi'' from the 15th century states that the Ottoman army used guns from at least 1421-1422. According to research by Reinuad and Fave, the first firearms were developed by Muslims.
After the spread of rocket technology from China, this was followed by the invention of torpedoes in the Muslim world, and were driven by a rocket system. The works of Hasan al-Rammah in Syria in 1275 shows illustrations of a torpedo running with a rocket system filled with explosive materials and having three firing points.
The first iron rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, a Muslim ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore. He successfully used these iron rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled
higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[38]
Muslim chemists were the first to purify saltpeter to the weapons-grade purity for use in gunpowder, as potassium nitrate must be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his ''Al-Muqaddimat'' in the early 11th century.[39][40]
Jean Mathes wrote that Muslim rulers had stockpiles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices, sulphur bombs and pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe.
A 1356 copy of Alaaddin Tayboga al-Omari al-Saki al-Meliki al-Nasir's ''Kitab al-hiyal fi'l-hurub ve fath almada'in hifz al-durub'' contains descriptions on rockets, bombs, and burning arrows.[41]
The earliest historical record of a reservoir fountain pen dates back to the 10th century. In 953, Ma'Äd al-Mu'izz, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action.[42]
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
Other inventions from the Islamic world include:
★ Quilting, pointed arch, frequency analysis, cryptanalysis, three-course meal, glasses, Persian carpet, modern cheque, and royal pleasure gardens,Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''The Independent'', 11 March 2006.
★ Homing pigeons (by Fatimid Caliph Aziz), how the eye works, 1000 year old recipes, rock crystals, musical instruments, musical theory, various fashions, Henna, Miswak, sea navigation techniques, and irrigation techniques.Professor Salim T. S. Al-Hassani (2006). ''1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World''. FSTC. ISBN 0955242606.[43][44]
A significant number of other inventions and technological advances were made in the Muslim world, as well as adopting and improving technologies centuries before they were used in the West. For example, papermaking was adopted from China many centuries before it was known in the West.[45] Iron was a vital industry in Muslim lands and was given importance in the Qur'an.[46][47] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China to Islamic countries, through which it was later passed to Europe.[48] Knowledge of chemical processes (alchemy and chemistry) and distillation (alcohol) also spread to Europe from the Muslim world. Numerous contributions were made in laboratory practices such as "refined techniques of distillation, the preparation of medicines, and the production of salts."[49] Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans.[50]
★ Islamic science
★ Islamic Golden Age
★ Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
★ Timeline of invention
1. Richard Nelson Frye. ''Golden Age of Persia'', p. 163.
2. Islam, Knowledge, and Science. University of Southern California.
3. Linear astrolabe, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.
4. Donald Routledge Hill (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '42', p. 139-163.
5. Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' '56' (5), p. 1-69.
6. Astrolabe gearing, Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.
7. History of the Astrolabe, Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.
8.
9. David W. Tschanz, Flights of Fancy on Manmade Wings, ''IslamOnline.net''.
10. Parachutes, ''Principles of Aeronautics'', Franklin Institute.
11. R. L. Verma (1969). ''Al-Hazen: father of modern optics''.
12. Distillation, ''Hutchinson Encyclopedia'', 2007.
13. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.
14. Marshall Clagett (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages'', p. 64. University of Wisconsin Press.
15. M. Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova, "Statics", in R. Rashed (1996), ''The Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science'', p. 639, Routledge, London. (cf. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)
16. Khairallah, Amin A. ''Outline of Arabic Contributions to Medicine'', chapter 10. Beirut, 1946.
17. Deborah Rowe, How Islam has kept us out of the 'Dark Ages', ''Science and Society'', ''Channel 4'', May 2004.
18. The Machines of Al-Jazari and Taqi Al-Din, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.
19. Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974) ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'', Translated and annotated by Donald Routledge Hill, Dordrecht / D. Reidel, part II.
20. Abdel Aziz al-Jaraki (2007), When Ridhwan al-Sa’ati Anteceded Big Ben by More than Six Centuries, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
21. '', Part One, after the 50th minute.
22. Ahmad Y Hassan, Flywheel Effect for a ''Saqiya''.
23. The Beginning of the Paper Industry, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
24. A 13th Century Programmable Robot. University of Sheffield.
25. Segment gear, TheFreeDictionary.com
26. Ismail b. Ali Ebu'l Feda history, Weltgeschichte, hrsg. von Fleischer and Reiske 1789-94, 1831.
27. A. Marigny (1760). ''Histoire de Arabes''. Paris, Bd. 3, S.206.
28. Ahmad Y Hassan (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34-35. Instiute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
29. David A. King (1984). "Architecture and Astronomy: The Ventilators of Medieval Cairo and Their Secrets", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '104' (1), p. 97-133.
30. Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
31. Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'' '77' (1), p. 1-30 (8).
32. Derek de Solla Price (1975). Review of Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari, ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices''. ''Technology and Culture'' '16' (1), p. 81.
33. The Machines of Al-Jazari and Taqi Al-Din (2004), Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
34. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
35. Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007). "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '176' (10).
36. Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '4' (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)
37. Donald Routledge Hill (1994). ''Islamic Science and Engineering'', p. 119. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748604553.
38. Roddam Narasimha (1985). Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D. National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science.
39. Ahmad Y Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources
40. Ahmad Y Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
41. Alaaddin Tayboga al-Omari al-Saki al-Meliki al-Nasir (1356 copy). ''Kitab al-hiyal fi'l-hurub ve fath almada'in hifz al-durub''. Topkapi Palace, A. 3469, Es'ad Ef. Library No. 1884.
42. Origins of the Fountain Pen, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
43. Where the heart is, ''1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World'', 2006.
44. Laura Shannon (2006). 1001 Inventions At Museum Of Science And Industry Manchester.
45. Huff (2003), p.74
46.
47. Hobson (2004), p.130
48. Phillips (1992), p.76
49. Levere (2001), p.6
50. Mintz (1986), p. 23-29
★ 1001 Muslim Inventions
★ Muslim Heritage
Astronomical instruments
Main articles: Islamic astronomy
Muslim astronomers developed a number of astronomical instruments, including several variations of the astrolabe, originally invented by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE, but with considerable improvements made to the device in the Muslim world.
Astrolabes
★ Brass astrolabe by Muhammad al-Fazari.[1]
★ Earliest surviving astrolabe in 315 AH (927-928 CE).
★ Mechanical geared astrolabe by Ibn Samh[2] and
★ Orthographical astrolabe by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« in the 11th century.Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
★ "Saphaea" by AbÅ« IshÄq IbrÄhÄ«m al-ZarqÄlÄ« (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain.
★ Linear astrolabe ("staff of al-Tusi") by Sharaf al-DÄ«n al-TÅ«sÄ«.[3]
★ Spherical astrolabe in the 14th century.
Analog computers
★ Equatorium by AbÅ« IshÄq IbrÄhÄ«m al-ZarqÄlÄ« (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain ''circa'' 1015.
★ Planisphere by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« in the 11th century.
★ Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer with gear train and gear-wheels by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.[4]
★ Fixed-wired knowledge processing machine by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '9' (1), p. 63-70 [64].
★ Astrolabe with calendar computer and gear-wheels by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[5]
★ Oldest surviving complete mechanical geared machine by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[6][7]
Other instruments
★ Quadrant in Iraq.
★ Sine quadrant and horary quadrant in 9th century Baghdad.David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., ''Astronomy before the telescope'', p. 167-168. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7.
★ Sextant by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in Ray, Iran in 994.[8]
★ Astrometric device in Islamic Spain around 1015.
★ Star chart by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni in the 11th century.
★ Hodometer by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni.
★ Celestial globe in the 11th century.
Aviation technology
Parachute
In 9th century Islamic Spain, Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firnas) invented a primitive version of the parachute.Poore, Daniel. A History of Early Flight. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1952.Smithsonian Institution. Manned Flight. Pamphlet 1990.[9][10]
John H. Lienhard described it in ''The Engines of Our Ingenuity'' as follows:
Hang glider
Shortly afterwards, Abbas Ibn Firnas built the first hang glider, which may have also been the first manned glider. Knowledge of Firman and Firnas' flying machines spread to other parts of Europe from Arabic references.
According to Philip Hitti in ''History of the Arabs'':
Artificial wings
Ibn Firnas' hang glider was the first to have artificial wings, though the flight was eventually unsuccessful. According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi was the first aviator to have made a successful flight with artificial wings between 1630-1632.Arslan Terzioglu (2007). "The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History", ''The Turks'' (ed. H. C. Guzel), p. 804-810.
Manned rocket
According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Lagari Hasan Çelebi launched himself in the air in a rocket, which was composed of a large cage with a conical top filled with gunpowder. The flight was accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of Ottoman Emperor Murad IV's daughter in 1633. He is said to have made a soft landing in the Bosporus by using the wings attached to his body after the gunpowder was consumed and was rewarded by the sultan with a valuable military position in the Ottoman army. The flight was estimated to have lasted about twenty seconds and the maximum height reached around 300 metres.
Camera technology
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), the "father of optics" and pioneer of the modern scientific method, invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera.
In ancient times, Euclid and Ptolemy believed that the eyes emitted rays which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that rays of light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who is regarded as the "father of optics".[11] He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one, with his development of the scientific method. The word "camera" comes from the Arabic word ''qamara'' for a dark or private room.
Pinhole camera
Ibn al-Haytham first described pinhole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters.
Camera obscura
Ibn al-Haytham worked out that the smaller the hole, the better the picture, and set up the first camera obscura, a precursor to the modern camera.
Chemical technology
Main articles: Alchemy (Islam)
Jabir ibn Hayyan, the father of chemistry, invented the alembic still and many chemicals, including distilled alcohol, and established the perfume industry.
Distillation was known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but chemists during the Islamic Golden Age made significant advances to the techniques of distillation and developed several different variations of it.
Chemical processes
★ Liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration by Abu Musa JÄbir ibn HayyÄn (Geber) in the 9th century.
★ Steam distillation by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.
Laboratory apparatus
★ Alembic and still by Abu Musa JÄbir ibn HayyÄn (Geber) in the 9th century.Will Durant (1980). ''The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4)'', p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002.
★ Retort by Abu Musa JÄbir ibn HayyÄn.[12]
★ Thermometer and air thermometer by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.[13]
★ Conical measure by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« in the 11th century.[14][15]
★ Laboratory flask and pycnometer by AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«.
★ Hydrostatic balance and steelyard by al-Khazini in 1121.Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 346.
Chemical products
Ahmad Y Hassan wrote:
Other chemical substances invented by Muslims include:
★ Sulfuric acid, originally coined as ''oil of vitriol'', by Jabir ibn Hayyan, the chemical's probable discoverer.[16]
★ Distilled alcohol by Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century.Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
★ Uric acid and nitric acid by Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) in the 9th century.
★ Medicinal alcohol in the 10th century.
Al-Razi (Rhazes) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics, wrote various modern recipes for soap, and first described kerosene and kerosene lamps.
★ The distillation of petroleum by al-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th century Baghdad.Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", ''Saudi Aramco World'', January-February 1995, p. 20-27.
★ Kerosene and Kerosene lamp by al-Razi (Rhazes).
★ Essential oil by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.
★ Petrol by Muslim chemists.[17]
★ Hygienic cosmetics by Muslim chemists.The invention of cosmetics. ''1001 Inventions''.
★ Dyestuff by Muslim chemists.Dunlop, D.M. (1975), "Arab Civilization", ''Librairie du Liban''
★ At least 2,000 medicinal substances.S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '51' (1-2), p. 47-50.
Will Durant wrote in ''The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith'':
Robert Briffault wrote in ''The Making of Humanity'':
Drinking products
★ Coffee by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia.
★ Sherbet, the first juiced soft drink, and a variety of juices called ''sharab''.The World's First Soft Drink. 1001 Inventions, 2006.
★ Recipes for drink syrups that can be kept outside the refrigerator for weeks or months.
Hygiene products
★ Modern recipe for soap, combining vegetable oils (such as olive oil) with sodium hydroxide and aromatics (such as thyme oil), by al-Razi (Rhazes).
★ Soap bar by al-Razi (Rhazes).
★ Sodium Lye (''Al-Soda Al-Kawia''), Perfumed and colored soaps, and liquid and solid soaps by Muslim chemists.
★ Recipes for soaps, such as ones made from sesame oil, potash, alkali, lime, and molds, leaving hard soap (soap bar).
★ Shampoo by the Bengali Muslim Sake Dean Mahomet in 1759.
Perfumery
★ Perfume usage recorded in 7th century Arabian Peninsula.
★ Miswaak by Muhammad in 7th century Arabian Peninsula.
★ Perfume industry established by Geber (Jabir) (b. 722, Iraq) and al-Kindi (b. 801, Iraq).
★ Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil.Levey, Martin (1973), "Early Arabic Pharmacology", ''E.J. Brill: Leiden'', ISBN 90-04-03796-9.
★ Al-Kindi carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products.
★ Al-Kindi elaborated a vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
★ The preparation of a perfume called ''ghaliya'', which contained musk, amber and other ingredients, and the use of various drugs and apparatus, by al-Kindi.
★ Extraction of fragrances through steam distillation by AbÅ« AlÄ« ibn SÄ«nÄ (Avicenna) in the 11th century.
★ Introduction of new raw ingredients in perfumery.
★ Perfumery produced from different spices, herbals, and other fragrance materials.
★ Introduction of jasmine from South and Southeast Asia, and citrus fruits from East Asia in modern perfumery.
★ Cheap mass production of incenses.
★ Musk and floral perfumes in the 11th-12th century Arabian Peninsula.
Clock technology
The elephant clock from Al-Jazari's manuscript.
Elephant clock with automaton, regulator, and closed loop
The elephant clock described by al-Jazari in 1206 is notable for several innovations. It was the first clock in which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of time (in this case, a humanoid robot striking the cymbal and a mechanical bird chirping), the first mechanism to employ a flow regulator, and the earliest example of a closed-loop system in a mechanism.[18]
Mechanical clocks
In ancient times, water clocks were used, which were used for millennia in ancient China and India. This changed when Muslims invented the first mechanical clocks, including weight-driven clocks and scribe clocks.
Weight-driven mechanical clocks were produced by Muslim engineers in Spain, and this knowledge was transmitted to other parts of Europe through Latin translations of Islamic texts on mechanics. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories. Al-Jazari invented some of the first mechanical clocks, driven by water and weights, including a water-powered scribe clock. This water powered portable clock was a meter high and half a meter wide. The scribe with his pen was synonymous to the hour hand of a modern clock. This is an example of an ingenious water system by al-Jazari.Donald Routledge Hill (1996), ''A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times'', Routledge, p.224.[19] Al-Jazari also invented water clocks with oil lamps and automatic clocks. Al-Jazari's famous water-powered scribe clock was reconstructed successfully at the Science Museum (London) in 1976.
Striking clock
According to a 1202 manuscript written by Ridhwan al-Sa’ati, Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad b. Naser b. Saghir b. Khalid al-Kaysarani contructed the first striking clock in 1154 as part of a clock tower, similar to the Big Ben, near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria.[20]
Watch
According to Will Durant, Abbas Ibn Firnas invented a watch-like device in the 9th century which kept accurate time.
Glass products
Glass from stones
Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote that Abbas Ibn Firnas was the first to produce glass from stones, although this probably referred to making glass from sand, a process used from 2,500 B.C. in the Middle East. Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", ''Technology and Culture'' '2' (2), pp. 97-111.
Parabolic mirror
The parabolic mirror was invented by Ibn al-Haytham and described in his ''Book of Optics'' (1011-1021).
Mechanical technology
Diagram of a water device from a book by Al-Jazari.
Agricultural devices
The early Muslim Arab Empire was ahead of its time regarding water cleaning systems and also had advanced water transportation systems resulting in better agriculture, something that helped in issues related to Islamic hygienical jurisprudence.[21]
Al-Jazari invented machines for raising water and water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata in the 12th century.
Crank and connecting rod
Al-Jazari's invention of the crankshaft (and the crank mechanism) is considered the most important single mechanical invention after the wheel, as it transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion, which is central to much of the machinery in the modern world, including the internal combustion engine.
The connecting rod was also invented by al-Jazari, and was used in a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine he developed in 1206, in two of his water raising machines.Ahmad Y Hassan. The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine.
Flywheel-driven chain pump and noria
A flywheel is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine. Ibn Bassal of Islamic Spain pioneered the use of the flywheel in the chain pump (saqiya) and noria.[22]
Metronome
Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote that Abbas Ibn Firnas was the inventor of an early metronome.
Paper mill
Paper was introduced into the Muslim world by Chinese prisoners after the Battle of Talas. Muslims made several improvements to papermaking and built the first paper mills in Baghdad, Iraq, as early as 794. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.[23]
Programmable humanoid robot
Ibn Ismail Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (1136-1206) created the first recorded designs of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[24]
Segmental gear
A segmental gear is "a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."[25] Professor Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote:
Singing birds
Caliph al-Mamun had a silver and golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 827, which had the features of an automatic machine. There were metal birds that sang automatically on the swinging branches of this tree built by Muslim engineers at the time.[26]
The Abbasid Caliph al-Muktadir also had a golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 915, with birds on it flapping their wings and singing.[27]
Steam turbine
In 1551, the Egyptian engineer Taqi al-Din described the first practical steam turbine as a prime mover for rotating a spit. In his book, ''Al-Turuq al-saniyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya'' (''The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines''), completed in 1551 AD (959 AH), Taqi al-Din wrote:[28]
Valve-operated reciprocating suction piston pump
The valve-operated reciprocating suction piston pump from a manuscript of al-Jazari, the "father of modern day engineering".
In 1206, al-Jazari demonstrates the first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion, the first suction pipes and suction piston pump, and one of the earliest valve operations, when he invented a two cylinder reciprocating suction piston pump, which seems to have had a direct significance in the development of modern engineering. This pump is driven by a water wheel, which drives, through a system of gears, an oscillating slot-rod to which the rods of two pistons are attached. The pistons work in horizontally opposed cylinders, each provided with valve-operated suction and delivery pipes. The delivery pipes are joined above the centre of the machine to form a single outlet into the irrigation system. This pump is remarkable for three reasons:Ahmad Y Hassan. The Origin of the Suction Pump - Al-Jazari 1206 A.D.
#The earliest known use of a true suction pipe in a pump
#The first application of the double-acting principle
#The first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion
For these reasons, this invention is considered important to the development of the steam engine and of modern reciprocating pumps.
Ventillator
Ventilators were invented in Egypt and were widely used in many houses throughout Cairo since the early Middle Ages. These ventillators were later described in detail by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in 1200.[29]
Windmill
Windmills were first used in eastern Persia (Sistan) by the 9th century, as described by Muslim geographers. These were verticle axle windmills, which had long vertical shafts with rectangle shaped blades.[30] The authenticity of an earlier anecdote of a windmill involving the second caliph Umar (634-644 AD) is questioned on the grounds of being a 10th century amendment.[31] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn or draw up water.
Other devices
Drawing of the self-trimming lamp in Ahmad ibn MÅ«sÄ ibn ShÄkir's Arabic treatise on mechanical devices.
In the 9th century, the BanÅ« MÅ«sÄ brothers invented a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their ''Book of Ingenious Devices''. Some of these inventions include:
★ ValveOtto Mayr (1970). ''The Origins of Feedback Control'', MIT Press.
★ Float valve
★ Feedback controller
★ Automatic flute playerTeun Koetsier (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", ''Mechanism and Machine theory'' '36', p. 590-591.
★ Programmable machine
★ Trick devices
★ Self-trimming lamp (Ahmad ibn MÅ«sÄ ibn ShÄkir)
Along with his inventions above, al-Jazari also designed and constructed a number of other automata, such as kitchen appliances and musical automata powered by water (see one of his works at The Automata of Al-Jazari). Al-Jazari also invented water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata.
Al-Jazari described over fifty mechanical devices in six different categories, along with construction drawings. Along with his inventions above, some of the other mechanival devices he described include:Al-Jazari, ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fà ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya'', translated by P. Hill (1973). Springer.[32][33]
★ Combination locks
★ Hand washing device
★ Accurate calibration of orifices
★ Lamination of timber to reduce warping
★ Static balancing of wheels
★ Use of paper models to establish a design
★ Casting of metals in closed mould boxes with green sand
★ Trick drinking vessels
★ Phlebotomy measures
★ Linkage
★ Hydraulic devices
★ Water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata
★ Water pumps
★ Water level
★ Constructions of pots and pans for wine making
★ Construction of ewers and bowls for use as cups
★ Pools and fountains
★ Devices able to elevate water from shallow wells or flowing rivers
★ Several musical instruments
★ Other machines working by water
★ Other sundry mechanisms
Several manuscripts on mechanics and automatic machine construction were also available in various libraries in Istanbul.
Medical technology
Main articles: Islamic medicine
Medical treatments
Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine and the father of momentum, described various anesthetics and medical and therapeutic drugs in his ''Canon of Medicine''.
★ Modern oral and inhalant anesthesia by Muslim anesthesiologists.
★ Surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face, by Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Zuhr in Islamic Spain.
★ Medical and anesthetic use of Opium by Avicenna.
★ Mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics by al-Razi (10th century).
★ Application of purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent by Muslim physicians and surgeons in the 10th century.
★ Utilization of special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery by surgeons in Islamic Spain.
★ Specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period, in Córdoba, Spain.
★ Drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases, and the use of practical experience and careful observation, by al-Razi, Avicenna, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Qasim, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn al-Nafis, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl.
★ The word "drug" is derived from Arabic.
★ Chemotherapeutical drugs in the Muslim world.
★ Specific substances to destroy microbes, and the application of sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite.
★ Medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation, and the first distillation devices for use in chemistry manufactured on a large scale, in the 10th century.
★ Alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.
★ Plaster by Abu al-Qasim (Abucasis) in 1000.[34]
★ Tracheotomy by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.
★ The medical procedure of inoculation in the medieval Muslim world, later followed by the first smallpox vaccine in the form of cowpox, invented in Turkey in the early 18th century.
★ At least 2,000 medicinal substances.
Surgical intstruments
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), the "father of modern surgery", performed surgeries under inhalant anesthesia, and invented the plaster and many surgical instruments.
The following surgical instruments and techniques were developed or improved in the Muslim world.
★ Injection syringe by the Iraqi surgeon, Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, in the 9th century, using a hollow glass tube and suction to extract and remove cataracts from patients' eyes.
★ Over 200 surgical instruments were listed by Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) in the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), many of which were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced.
★ injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili.
★ Use of catgut for internal stitching, by Abu al-Qasim.
★ Forceps by Abu al-Qasim in the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), for extracting a dead fetus.[35]
★ Ligature, by Abu al-Qasim in the ''Al-Tasrif'', for the arteries in lieu of cauterization.
★ Surgical needle by Abu al-Qasim in his ''Al-Tasrif''.A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '68', Januray-February 2006.
★ Scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, by Abu al-Qasim in his ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000).[36]
★ Bone saw by Abu al-Qasim.
Military technology
After the spread of gunpowder from China to the Muslim world, Muslim engineers developed some of their own weapons for gunpowder warfare.
Cannons and ballistic war machines
In the 12th century, the Seljuqs had facilities in Sivas for manufacturing war machines. Ballistic weapons were manufactured in the Muslim world since the time of Kublai Khan in the 13th century. According to Chinese sources, two Muslim engineers, Alaaddin and Ismail (d. 1330), built machines of a ballistic-weapons nature before the besieged city of Hang-show between 1271-1273. Alaaddin's weapons also played a major role in the conquest of several other Chinese cities. His son Ma-ho-scha also developed ballistic weapons. Ismail (transliterated as ''I-ssu-ma-yin'') was present in the Mongol siege of Hsiang-yiang, where he built a war machine with the characteristics of a ballistic weapon. Chinese sources mention that when this war machines were fired, the earth and skies shook, the cannons were buried seven feet into the ground and destroyed everything. His son Yakub also developed ballistic war machines.
The ''Nesri Tarihi'' in the 15th century states that the Ottoman army used cannons from at least 1421-1422.
Counterweight trebuchet
Ala'eddin is honoured in the official history of China's Yuan Dynasty, for having constructed the counterweight trebuchet used with gunpowder for Kublai Khan.[37]
Explosives
Medieval French reports suggest that Muslim engineers used explosives against the Sixth Crusade army led by Ludwig IV, Landgrave of Thuringia in the 13th century.
Guns and firearms
In the 12th century, a primitive gun that shoots bullets, and later Aydinogullari using using guns firing bullets using springs and which are audible, show that guns were invented by Muslims in its primitive form. The ''Nesri Tarihi'' from the 15th century states that the Ottoman army used guns from at least 1421-1422. According to research by Reinuad and Fave, the first firearms were developed by Muslims.
Torpedo
After the spread of rocket technology from China, this was followed by the invention of torpedoes in the Muslim world, and were driven by a rocket system. The works of Hasan al-Rammah in Syria in 1275 shows illustrations of a torpedo running with a rocket system filled with explosive materials and having three firing points.
Iron rocket
The first iron rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, a Muslim ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore. He successfully used these iron rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled
higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[38]
Other weapons
Muslim chemists were the first to purify saltpeter to the weapons-grade purity for use in gunpowder, as potassium nitrate must be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his ''Al-Muqaddimat'' in the early 11th century.[39][40]
Jean Mathes wrote that Muslim rulers had stockpiles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices, sulphur bombs and pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe.
A 1356 copy of Alaaddin Tayboga al-Omari al-Saki al-Meliki al-Nasir's ''Kitab al-hiyal fi'l-hurub ve fath almada'in hifz al-durub'' contains descriptions on rockets, bombs, and burning arrows.[41]
Writing instruments
The earliest historical record of a reservoir fountain pen dates back to the 10th century. In 953, Ma'Äd al-Mu'izz, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action.[42]
Other inventions
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
Other inventions from the Islamic world include:
★ Quilting, pointed arch, frequency analysis, cryptanalysis, three-course meal, glasses, Persian carpet, modern cheque, and royal pleasure gardens,Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''The Independent'', 11 March 2006.
★ Homing pigeons (by Fatimid Caliph Aziz), how the eye works, 1000 year old recipes, rock crystals, musical instruments, musical theory, various fashions, Henna, Miswak, sea navigation techniques, and irrigation techniques.Professor Salim T. S. Al-Hassani (2006). ''1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World''. FSTC. ISBN 0955242606.[43][44]
A significant number of other inventions and technological advances were made in the Muslim world, as well as adopting and improving technologies centuries before they were used in the West. For example, papermaking was adopted from China many centuries before it was known in the West.[45] Iron was a vital industry in Muslim lands and was given importance in the Qur'an.[46][47] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China to Islamic countries, through which it was later passed to Europe.[48] Knowledge of chemical processes (alchemy and chemistry) and distillation (alcohol) also spread to Europe from the Muslim world. Numerous contributions were made in laboratory practices such as "refined techniques of distillation, the preparation of medicines, and the production of salts."[49] Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans.[50]
See also
★ Islamic science
★ Islamic Golden Age
★ Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
★ Timeline of invention
References
1. Richard Nelson Frye. ''Golden Age of Persia'', p. 163.
2. Islam, Knowledge, and Science. University of Southern California.
3. Linear astrolabe, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.
4. Donald Routledge Hill (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '42', p. 139-163.
5. Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' '56' (5), p. 1-69.
6. Astrolabe gearing, Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.
7. History of the Astrolabe, Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.
8.
9. David W. Tschanz, Flights of Fancy on Manmade Wings, ''IslamOnline.net''.
10. Parachutes, ''Principles of Aeronautics'', Franklin Institute.
11. R. L. Verma (1969). ''Al-Hazen: father of modern optics''.
12. Distillation, ''Hutchinson Encyclopedia'', 2007.
13. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.
14. Marshall Clagett (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages'', p. 64. University of Wisconsin Press.
15. M. Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova, "Statics", in R. Rashed (1996), ''The Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science'', p. 639, Routledge, London. (cf. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)
16. Khairallah, Amin A. ''Outline of Arabic Contributions to Medicine'', chapter 10. Beirut, 1946.
17. Deborah Rowe, How Islam has kept us out of the 'Dark Ages', ''Science and Society'', ''Channel 4'', May 2004.
18. The Machines of Al-Jazari and Taqi Al-Din, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.
19. Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974) ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'', Translated and annotated by Donald Routledge Hill, Dordrecht / D. Reidel, part II.
20. Abdel Aziz al-Jaraki (2007), When Ridhwan al-Sa’ati Anteceded Big Ben by More than Six Centuries, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
21. '', Part One, after the 50th minute.
22. Ahmad Y Hassan, Flywheel Effect for a ''Saqiya''.
23. The Beginning of the Paper Industry, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
24. A 13th Century Programmable Robot. University of Sheffield.
25. Segment gear, TheFreeDictionary.com
26. Ismail b. Ali Ebu'l Feda history, Weltgeschichte, hrsg. von Fleischer and Reiske 1789-94, 1831.
27. A. Marigny (1760). ''Histoire de Arabes''. Paris, Bd. 3, S.206.
28. Ahmad Y Hassan (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34-35. Instiute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
29. David A. King (1984). "Architecture and Astronomy: The Ventilators of Medieval Cairo and Their Secrets", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '104' (1), p. 97-133.
30. Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
31. Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'' '77' (1), p. 1-30 (8).
32. Derek de Solla Price (1975). Review of Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari, ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices''. ''Technology and Culture'' '16' (1), p. 81.
33. The Machines of Al-Jazari and Taqi Al-Din (2004), Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
34. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
35. Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007). "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '176' (10).
36. Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '4' (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)
37. Donald Routledge Hill (1994). ''Islamic Science and Engineering'', p. 119. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748604553.
38. Roddam Narasimha (1985). Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D. National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science.
39. Ahmad Y Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources
40. Ahmad Y Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
41. Alaaddin Tayboga al-Omari al-Saki al-Meliki al-Nasir (1356 copy). ''Kitab al-hiyal fi'l-hurub ve fath almada'in hifz al-durub''. Topkapi Palace, A. 3469, Es'ad Ef. Library No. 1884.
42. Origins of the Fountain Pen, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
43. Where the heart is, ''1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World'', 2006.
44. Laura Shannon (2006). 1001 Inventions At Museum Of Science And Industry Manchester.
45. Huff (2003), p.74
46.
47. Hobson (2004), p.130
48. Phillips (1992), p.76
49. Levere (2001), p.6
50. Mintz (1986), p. 23-29
External links
★ 1001 Muslim Inventions
★ Muslim Heritage
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