'Interlingua' is an
international auxiliary language (IAL) published in
1951 by the
International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). It is the most widely used
naturalistic auxiliary language.
[1] Interlingua was developed to combine a very simple grammar
[2][3] with a vocabulary consisting of words that are common to the widest possible range of languages.
[4] Interlingua is unusual for being immediately understandable to populations numbering in the hundreds of millions. Conversely, it can be – and is – used as an introduction to similar natural languages.
[1]
Rationale
Areas where a Romance language is commonly spoken are coloured on the map. Interlingua should be readily comprehensible to at least a large part of the more than 600 million native Romance speakers alone.
The expansive movements of science, technology, trade, diplomacy, and the arts, combined with the historical dominance of the
Greek and
Latin languages have resulted in a large common vocabulary among Western languages. With Interlingua an objective procedure is used to extract and standardize the most widespread word or words for a concept found in a set of ''control languages'':
English,
French,
Italian,
Spanish and
Portuguese, with
German and
Russian as secondary references. Words from any language are eligible for inclusion, so long as their internationality is shown by their presence in these control languages. Hence, Interlingua includes such diverse word forms as
Japanese ''geisha'' and ''samurai'',
Arabic ''califa'',
Aboriginal ''kanguru'', and
Finnish ''sauna''.
[4][7]
Interlingua combines this pre-existing vocabulary with a minimal grammar based on the control languages. People with a good knowledge of a
Romance language, or a smattering of a Romance language plus a good knowledge of the ''
international scientific vocabulary'' can frequently understand it immediately on reading or hearing it. Educated speakers of
English also enjoy this easy comprehension.
[8] The immediate comprehension of Interlingua, in turn, makes it unusually easy to learn. Speakers of
other languages can also learn to speak and write Interlingua in a short time, thanks to its simple grammar and regular word formation using a small number of
roots and
affixes.
[9]
Once learned, Interlingua can be used to learn other related languages quickly and easily, and in some studies, even to understand them immediately. Research with
Swedish students has shown that, after learning Interlingua, they can translate elementary texts from Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. In one 1974 study, an Interlingua class translated a Spanish text that students who had taken 150 hours of Spanish found too difficult to understand. Gopsill
[1] has suggested that Interlingua's freedom from irregularities allowed the students to grasp quickly the mechanisms of language.
[9]
Words in Interlingua retain their natural form; they are never distorted to fit a pre-existing grammar or set of rules. Each word retains its normal spelling, pronunciation, and meanings. For this reason, Interlingua is frequently termed a ''naturalistic'' IAL.
History
Main articles: History of Interlingua
International Auxiliary Language Association
One of the many unofficial logo designs created for Interlingua, displaying the main logo with a "control language" flag montage below.
Ultimate credit for Interlingua must go to the American heiress
Alice Vanderbilt Morris (1874–1950), who became interested in
linguistics and the
international auxiliary language movement in the early 1920s. In
1924, Morris and her husband,
Dave Hennen Morris, established the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) in
New York City. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a scientific basis. Morris developed the research program of IALA in consultation with
Edward Sapir,
William Edward Collinson, and
Otto Jespersen.
[12]
In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks: finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about
languages and
interlinguistics; and comparing extant IALs, including
Esperanto,
Esperanto II,
Ido,
Latino Sine Flexione,
Novial, and
Occidental. In pursuit of the last goal, it conducted parallel studies of these languages, with comparative studies of national languages, under the direction of scholars at American and European universities.
[13] It also arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, debating features and goals of their representative languages. With a "concession rule" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, early debates at IALA sometimes grew from heated to explosive.
[1]
In 1933, Professor
Herbert N. Shenton of
Syracuse University organized an intensive study of the problems encountered with interlanguages when used in international conferences. Later that same year, Dr.
Edward L. Thorndike published a paper about the relative learning speeds of "natural" and "modular" constructed languages. Both Shenton and Thorndike were major influences on IALA's work from then on.
[13]
The first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were taken in
1937, when a committee of 24 eminent linguists from 19 universities published ''Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary''. However, the outbreak of
World War II in
1939 cut short the intended biannual meetings of the committee.
[1]
Development of a new language
Originally, the association had not set out to create its own language. Its goal was to identify which auxiliary language already available was best suited for international communication, and how to promote it most effectively. However, after ten years of research, more and more members of IALA concluded that none of the existing
interlanguages were up to the task. By
1937, the members had made the decision to create a new language, to the surprise of the world's interlanguage community.
To that point, much of the debate had been equivocal on the decision to use naturalistic (e.g.,
Novial and
Occidental) or systematic (e.g.,
Esperanto and
Ido) words. During the war years, proponents of a naturalistic interlanguage won out. The first support was Dr. Thorndike's paper; the second was a concession by proponents of the systematic languages that thousands of words were already present in many – or even a majority – of the European languages. Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a
Procrustian bed, forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when a usable vocabulary was already available. This finally convinced supporters of the systematic languages, and IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best.
At the outbreak of
World War II, IALA's research activities were moved from Liverpool to New York, where
E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Dr.
Alexander Gode, developed a ''prototyping'' technique – an objective methodology for selecting and standardizing vocabulary based on a comparison of ''control languages''.
In
1943 Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. In
1945, IALA published a ''General Report'' – largely Morris's work – which presented three models for IALA's language:
★ Model P was a naturalistic model that made no attempt to regularize the prototyped vocabulary.
★ Model E was lightly schematicized along the lines of
Occidental.
★ Model K was moderately schematicized along the lines of
Ido (i.e., somewhat less schematicized than
Esperanto).
From
1946 to
1948, the renowned French linguist
André Martinet was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. An initial survey gauged reactions to the three models of 1945. In 1946, IALA sent an extensive survey to more than 3,000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.
The vocabulary and verb conjugations of Interlingua were first presented in
1951, when IALA published the finalized '' and the 27,000-word ''
Interlingua-English Dictionary'' (
IED). In
1954, IALA published an introductory manual entitled ''
Interlingua a Prime Vista'' ("Interlingua at First Sight").
Success, decline, and resurgence
An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter ''Spectroscopia Molecular'', published from 1952 to 1980.
[17] In 1954 Interlingua was used at the Second World Cardiological Congress, in
Washington DC, for both written summaries and oral interpretation. Within a few years, it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua.
Science Service, the publisher of ''Science Newsletter'' at the time, published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early 1950s until Gode's death in 1970. In 1967, the powerful
International Organization for Standardization, which normalizes terminology, voted almost unanimously to adopt Interlingua as the basis for its dictionaries.
[1]
The
IALA closed its doors in 1953 but was not formally dissolved until 1956 or later.
[19] Its role in promoting Interlingua was largely taken on by Science Service,
[20] which hired Gode as head of its newly formed
Interlingua Division.
[21] Hugh E. Blair, Gode's close friend and colleague, became his assistant.
[22] A successor organization, the Interlingua Institute,
[23] was founded in 1970 to promote Interlingua in the US and Canada. The new institute supported the work of other linguistic organizations, made considerable scholarly contributions and produced Interlingua precis for scholarly and medical publications. One of its largest achievements was two immense volumes on phytopathology produced by the American Phytopathological Society in 1976 and 1977.
[24]
Interlingua had attracted many former adherents of other international-language projects, notably
Occidental and
Ido. The former Occidentalist
Ric Berger founded The
Union Mundial pro Interlingua (
UMI) in 1955,
[25] and by the late 1950s, interest in Interlingua in Europe had already begun to overtake that in North America.
Beginning in the 1980s UMI has held international conferences every two years (typical attendance at the earlier meetings was 50 to 100) and launched a publishing programme that eventually produced over 100 volumes. Other Interlingua-language works were published by university presses in
Sweden and
Italy, and in the 1990s,
Brazil and
Switzerland.
[26][27] Several
Scandinavian schools undertook projects that used Interlingua as a means of teaching the international scientific and intellectual vocabulary.
In 2000, the Interlingua Institute was dissolved amid funding disputes with the UMI; the American Interlingua Society, established the following year, succeeded the institute and responded to new interest emerging in
Mexico.
[25]
In the Soviet bloc
Interlingua was spoken and promoted in the
Soviet bloc, despite attempts to suppress the language. In
East Germany, government officials confiscated the letters and magazines that the UMI sent to Walter Raédler, the Interlingua representative there.
[29] In
Czechoslovakia,
Július Tomin received threatening letters after his first article on Interlingua was published.
[30] Despite continuing persecution, he went on to become the Czech Interlingua representative, teach Interlingua in the school system, and author a long series of published articles and books.
[31]
Interlingua today
: ''See also:
Community''
Today, interest in Interlingua has expanded from the scientific community to the general public. Individuals, governments, and private companies use Interlingua for learning and instruction, travel, online publishing, and communication across language barriers. Interlingua is promoted internationally by the
Union Mundial pro Interlingua (president: Barbara Rubinstein, Sweden; secretary-general: Petyo Angelov,
Bulgaria). Periodicals and books are produced by many national organizations, such as the
Societate American pro Interlingua (president: Dr.
Stanley Mulaik), the
Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua (secretary: Ingvar Stenström), and the
Brazilian Union for Interlingua (president: Gilson Passos).
[32]
Community
It's not certain how many people have an active knowledge of Interlingua, but their numbers have grown consistently over most of the past half-century. As noted above, Interlingua is the most widely spoken naturalistic
auxiliary language.
Interlingua's greatest advantage is that it is the most widely ''understood''
International Auxiliary Language (IAL) by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with a Romance language, and educated speakers of English, to read and understand it without prior study.
Interlingua has active speakers on all continents, especially in
South America and in
Eastern and
Northern Europe, most notably
Scandinavia; also in
Russia and
Ukraine. In
Africa, Interlingua has official representation in the
Republic of the Congo. There are copious Interlingua web pages, including editions of Wikipedia and Wiktionary, and a number of periodicals, including ''Panorama in Interlingua'' from the
Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) and magazines of the national societies allied with it. There are several active mailing lists, and Interlingua is also in use in certain
Usenet newsgroups, particularly in the europa.
★ hierarchy. Interlingua is presented on CDs, radio, and television.
[33] In recent years, samples of Interlingua have also been seen in music and anime.
Interlingua is taught in many high schools and universities, sometimes as a means of teaching other languages quickly, presenting
interlinguistics, or introducing the international vocabulary. The prestigious
University of Granada in
Spain, for example, offers an Interlingua course in collaboration with the Centro de Formación Continua.
[34]
Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different country; the most recent conference (
2005), in
Sweden, was attended by slightly over 250 people. In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden. National organizations such as the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua also organize regular conferences.
[35]
Phonology and orthography
Phonology
The following tables illustrate Interlingua's consonants and vowels respectively:
Orthography and pronunciation
Interlingua uses the standard Latin alphabet with all its 26 letters and no diacritics. Despite its naturalistic appearance, Interlingua has a largely
phonemic orthography. For the most part,
consonants are pronounced as in English, while the
vowels are like Spanish. Unstressed vowels should not be pronounced as a schwa ([ə]), as in English.
Double consonants are pronounced as single. Interlingua has at least three falling
diphthongs, ,
[36] but an exhaustive list is not given by either the official dictionary or the grammar.
Stress
The ''general rule'' is that stress falls on the vowel before the last consonant (e.g., ''l'i'ngua, ess'e'r, requirim'e'nto'', 'language', 'to be', 'requirement'), and where that isn't possible, on the first vowel (''v'i'a'', 'way', '''i'o cr'e'a'', 'I create'). There are a few exceptions, and the following rules account for most of them:
★ Adjectives and nouns ending in with a vowel followed by ''-le, -ne,'' or ''-re'' are stressed on the third-last syllable (''fr'a'gile, m'a'rgine, 'a'ltere'' 'other', but ''illa imp'o'ne'' 'she imposes').
★ Words ending in ''-ica/-ico, -ide/-ido'' and ''-ula/-ulo,'' are stressed on the third-last syllable (''pol'i'tica, scient'i'fico, r'a'pide, st'u'pido, cap'i'tula, s'e'culo'' 'century').
★ Words ending in ''-ic'' are stressed on the second-last syllable (''c'u'bic'').
Speakers may pronounce all words according to the general rule mentioned above. For example, ''kilom'e'tro'' is acceptable, although ''kil'o'metro'' is more common.
Exceptions
Whenever the pronunciation or stress of a word varies from above rules, this is in principle indicated in the Interlingua-English Dictionary. Some are words that are (slightly) pronounced irregularly in the control languages of Interlingua and this causes the same to happen in Interlingua. An example is
, which starts with a /ʃ/ (and is indicated in the dictionary with a "''(sh-)''" after the word).
Loanwords
Like its control languages, Interlingua has a number of words that are considered unassimilated foreign loanwords. They are pronounced as in their language of origin, and they can exhibit foreign sounds like the voiceless velar fricative [x] and the close front rounded vowel [y]. Their spelling may contain diacritics or other marks. If the diacritics do not affect pronunciation, they are removed.
Phonotactics
Interlingua has no explicitly defined phonotactics. However, the prototyping procedure for determining Interlingua words, which strives for internationality, should in general lead naturally to word shapes that are easy for most learners to pronounce. In the process of forming new words, an ending cannot always be added without a modification of some kind in between. A good example is the plural ''-s'', which is always preceded by a vowel to prevent the occurrence of a hard-to-pronounce consonant cluster at the end. If the singular does not end in a vowel, the final ''-s'' becomes ''-es.''
Vocabulary
Words in Interlingua may be taken from any language, as long as their internationality is verified by their presence in seven ''control'' languages: Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian acting as secondary controls. These are the most widely spoken Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages, respectively. Because of their close relationship, Spanish and Portuguese are treated as one unit.
The largest number of Interlingua words are of Latin origin, with the Greek and Germanic languages providing the second and third largest number. The remainder of the vocabulary originates in Slavic and non-Western languages.[4]
Eligibility
Main articles: Interlingua and eligibility of international words
A word, that is a form with meaning, enters the Interlingua vocabulary if it is attested to in at least three of the four primary control languages. Either secondary control language can substitute for a primary language. In some cases, the archaic or ''potential'' presence of a word can contribute to its eligibility.
A word can be potentially present in a language when a derivative is present, but the word itself is not. English ''proximity'', for example, gives support to Interlingua ''proxime'', meaning 'near, close'. This counts as long as one or more control languages actually have this basic root word. Potentiality also occurs when a concept is represented as a compound or derivative in a control language, the morphemes that make it up are themselves international, and the combination adequately conveys the meaning of the larger word. An example is Italian ''fiammifero'' (lit. flamebearer), meaning "match, lucifer", which leads to Interlingua ''flammifero'', or "match". This word is thus said to be potentially present in the other languages although they may represent the meaning with a single morpheme.
Words do not enter the Interlingua vocabulary just because cognates exist in a sufficient number of languages. If their meanings have become different over time, they are considered different words for the purpose of Interlingua eligibility. If they still have one or more meanings in common, however, the word shape can still enter Interlingua with this smaller set of meanings.
If this procedure did not produce an international word, the word for a concept was originally taken from Latin (see below). This only occurred with a few grammatical particles.
Form
The form of an Interlingua word is considered an ''international prototype'' with respect to the other words. On the one hand, it should be neutral, free from characteristics peculiar to one language. On the other hand, it should maximally capture the characteristics common to all contributing languages. As a result, it can be transformed into any of the contributing variants using only these language-specific characteristics. If the word has any derivatives that occur in the source languages with appropriate parallel meanings, then their morphological connection must remain intact; for example, the Interlingua word for 'time' is spelled ''tempore'' and not ''
★ tempus'' or ''
★ tempo'' in order to match it with its derived adjectives, such as ''temporal''.
The language-specific characteristics are closely related to the sound laws of the individual languages; the resulting words are often close or even identical to the most recent form common to the contributing words. This sometimes corresponds with that of Vulgar Latin. At other times, it is much more recent or even contemporary.
As a general example, the German ''Auge'', English ''eye'', French ''oeil'', Italian ''occhio'', Spanish ''ojo'', and Portuguese ''olho'' appear quite different, but they descend from a historical form ''oculus''. This, and international derivatives like ''ocular'' and ''oculista'', determine the form ''oculo'' to be used in Interlingua.[38]
Notes on Interlingua vocabulary
New words can be derived internally – that is, from existing Interlingua words – or extracted from the control languages in the manner of the original vocabulary. Internal word-building, though freer than in the control languages, is more limited than in schematic languages.
Originally, a word was taken from Latin if the usual procedure did not produce a sufficiently international word. More recently, modern alternatives have become generally accepted. For example, the southern Romance ''comprar'', meaning 'to buy', has replaced ''emer'', because the latter occurs only in derivatives in the control languages. Similarly, the modern form ''troppo'', 'too' or 'too much', has replaced ''nimis'', and ''ma'' 'but' has largely replaced ''sed''.
Grammar
Interlingua has been developed so that it contains no grammatical feature that is absent from even one control language. The form of these features was determined in much the same way as the vocabulary.[39]
This had led to Interlingua having a grammar similar to that of the Romance languages, but greatly simplified, primarily under the influence of English. Thus, Interlingua has no noun-adjective agreement by either gender, case, or number (cf. Spanish and Portuguese ''gatos negros'', 'black cats'), since this is absent from English, and it has no progressive verb tenses (English ''I am reading''), since they are absent from French. The definite article ''le'' is invariable, as in English. Conversely, Interlingua has singular-plural distinction of nouns since all the control languages do.
Nouns have no grammatical gender.[39][41] Plurals are formed by adding ''-s'', or ''-es'' after a final consonant.[39] Personal Pronouns take one form for the subject and one for the direct object and reflexive. In the third person, the reflexive is always ''se''.[39][41] Most adverbs are derived regularly from adjectives by adding ''-mente'', or ''-amente'' after a ''-c''. An adverb can be formed from any adjective in this way.[45]
Verbs take the same form for all persons (''io, tu, illa vive'', 'I live', 'you live', 'she lives'). The only exceptions are some optional forms for ''esser'', 'to be'. The indicative (''pare'', 'appear', 'appears') is the same as the imperative (''pare!'' 'appear!'), and there is no subjunctive.[39] Three common verbs usually take short forms in the present tense: ''es'' for 'is', 'am', 'are;' ''ha'' for 'has', 'have;' and ''va'' for 'go', 'goes'.[41] A few irregular verb forms are available, but rarely used.[48]
There are four simple tenses (present, past, future, and conditional), three compound tenses (past, future, and conditional), and the passive voice. The compound structures employ an auxiliary plus the infinitive or the past participle (e.g., ''Ille ha arrivate'', 'He has arrived').[39] Simple and compound tenses can be combined in various ways to express more complex tenses (e.g., ''Nos haberea morite'', 'We would have died').[50]
Word order is generally Subject–Verb–Object, except that a direct object or reflexive pronoun comes before the verb (''Io les vide'', 'I see them'); this change of word order to Subject–Object–Verb comes from the Romance languages.[39][41] Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify, but they most often follow it.[39] The position of adverbs is flexible, though constrained by common sense.[41]
Criticisms and controversies
While Interlingua is a successful auxiliary language, it has been criticised, often by proponents of other auxiliary languages. This may be partly because both opponents and supporters see Interlingua as a candidate for being ''the'' universal second "neutral" language for the world to use.
Being a European-based language, Interlingua is not easily presented as a neutral language for the whole world instead of just Europe or the Western world, although one could argue that favoring some with the choice of vocabulary would be acceptable as long as it wouldn't make it harder for others to learn. Speakers of languages other than Indo-European have an additional disadvantage. Interlingua includes spelling irregularities that, while internationally recognizable in written form, increase the time needed to fully learn the language (correct spelling and pronunciation for every word), especially for those unfamiliar with Indo-European languages.
Conversely, Interlingua has been suggested as a useful language for study as an introduction to Indo-European languages in general, and Romance languages in particular. In fact, Interlingua has been taught at Swedish high schools for this purpose.
One point of criticism that does take Interlingua's design goals into account is that its credential as being "Standard Average European" is too weak outside the Romance languages. Some opponents see the Germanic, Slavic, and Celtic languages, in particular, as having little influence.
Proponents point out that Interlingua's source languages include not only Romance languages but English, German, and Russian as well. Moreover, the source languages are widely spoken internationally, and large numbers of their words also appear in other languages – still more when derivative forms and loan translations are included. Tests showed that if a larger number of source languages were used, the results would be about the same.[55] So, IALA selected a much simpler extraction procedure for Interlingua with little adverse effect on its internationality. In addition, the grammar of Interlingua is still simpler than most or all Indo-European languages, contributing to ease of learning.
Finally, other auxiliary languages have a mix of words that is similar to Interlingua's, but accidentally hidden. Wordforms are frequently altered to fit pre-established rules of grammar and orthography. For example, all accusative adjectives might end in ''-en'', or the letter ''x'' might be replaced by combinations such as ''gz'' and ''ks''. In addition, some schematic languages contain words that look unfamiliar because they are entirely invented. Thus, the linguistic mix of the schematic auxiliary languages is not so much sweeping and inclusive as difficult to make out.
Samples
The Lord's Prayer:
: ''Nostre Patre, qui es in le celos,''
: ''que tu nomine sia sanctificate;''
: ''que tu regno veni;''
: ''que tu voluntate sia facite''
: ''super le terra como etiam in le celo.''
: ''Da nos hodie nostre pan quotidian,''
: ''e pardona a nos nostre debitas''
: ''como nos pardona a nostre debitores,''
: ''e non duce nos in tentation,''
: ''sed libera nos del mal.''
From an essay by Alexander Gode:
:''Interlingua se ha distachate ab le movimento pro le disveloppamento e le introduction de un lingua universal pro tote le humanitate. Si o non on crede que un lingua pro tote le humanitate es possibile, si o non on crede que interlingua va devenir un tal lingua es totalmente indifferente ab le puncto de vista de interlingua mesme. Le sol facto que importa (ab le puncto de vista de interlingua mesme) es que interlingua, gratias a su ambition de reflecter le homogeneitate cultural e ergo linguistic del occidente, es capace de render servicios tangibile a iste precise momento del historia del mundo. Il es per su contributiones actual e non per le promissas de su adherentes que interlingua vole esser judicate.''[56]
:Interlingua has detached itself from the movement for the development and introduction of a universal language for all humanity. Whether or not one believes that a language for all humanity is possible, whether or not one believes that Interlingua will become such a language is totally irrelevant from the point of view of Interlingua itself. The only fact that matters (from the point of view of Interlingua itself) is that Interlingua, thanks to its ambition of reflecting the cultural and thus linguistic homogeneity of the West, is capable of rendering tangible services at this precise moment in the history of the world. It is by its present contributions and not by the promises of its adherents that Interlingua wishes to be judged.
See also
★ Esperanto and Interlingua compared
★ Ido and Interlingua compared
★ Interlingua and the characteristica universalis compared
★ Irregularities and exceptions in Interlingua
Citations and notes
1. International languages: a matter for Interlingua, , F. P., Gopsill, British Interlingua Society, 1990,
2. See Gopsill, F. P. ''Interlingua: A course for beginners.'' Part 1. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society, 1987. Gopsill, here and elsewhere, characterizes Interlingua as having a simple grammar and no irregularities.
3. The suggests that Interlingua has a small number of irregularities. See Gode (1955).
4. IALA (1971).
5. International languages: a matter for Interlingua, , F. P., Gopsill, British Interlingua Society, 1990,
6. IALA (1971).
7. Concise English–Interlingua dictionary, , F. P., Gopsill, British Interlingua Society, 1987,
8. See for example Sexton, Brian C., "Interlingua at first hearing," ''Lingua e Vita'', 1995, Issue 83.
9. Morris, Alice Vanderbilt, ''General Report, New York: International Auxiliary Language Association], 1945.
10. International languages: a matter for Interlingua, , F. P., Gopsill, British Interlingua Society, 1990,
11. Morris, Alice Vanderbilt, ''General Report, New York: International Auxiliary Language Association], 1945.
12. Falk, Julia S. "Words without grammar: Linguists and the international language movement in the United States, ''Language and Communication'', 15(3): pp. 241-259. Pergamon, 1995.
13. IALA (1971), "Foreword".
14. International languages: a matter for Interlingua, , F. P., Gopsill, British Interlingua Society, 1990,
15. IALA (1971), "Foreword".
16. International languages: a matter for Interlingua, , F. P., Gopsill, British Interlingua Society, 1990,
17. Breinstrup, Thomas, "Un revolution in le mundo scientific" (A revolution in the scientific world). Accessed January 16, 2007.
18. International languages: a matter for Interlingua, , F. P., Gopsill, British Interlingua Society, 1990,
19. Esterhill, Frank, ''Interlingua Institute: A History''. New York: Interlingua Institute, 2000.
20. F. P., and Sexton, B. C., Gopsill, "Le natura, si – un schema, no". Accessed January 16, 2007.
21. Biographias: Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von Aesch. Accessed January 16, 2007
22. Biographias: Hugh Edward Blair. Accessed January 16, 2007
23. Portrait del organisationes de interlingua. Access January 16, 2007.
24. Esterhill, Frank, ''Interlingua Institute: A History''. New York: Interlingua Institute, 2000.
25. Portrait del organisationes de interlingua. Accessed January 16, 2007.
26. Bibliographia de Interlingua. Accessed January 16, 2007.
27. Biographias: Ingvar Stenström. Accessed January 16, 2007
28. Portrait del organisationes de interlingua. Accessed January 16, 2007.
29. "Interlingua usate in le posta". Historia de Interlingua, 2001, revised 2006.
30. Breinstrup, Thomas. "Persecutate pro parlar Interlingua." ''Panorama in Interlingua'', 1995, Issue 5.
31. Biographias: Július Tomin. Historia de Interlingua, 2001. Revised 2006.
32. Portrait del organisationes de interlingua. Accessed July 1, 2007.
33. "Radioemissiones in e re Interlingua," ''Panorama in Interlingua'', Issue 3, 2006.
34. "A notar," ''Panorama in Interlingua,'' Issue 4, 2006.
35. [
http://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/50annos.htm Interlingua: Forte, fructuose, futur], Historia de Interlingua, 2001, Revised 2006.
36. IALA (1971), "Spelling and Pronunciation".
37. IALA (1971).
38. Blandino, Giovanni, "Le problema del linguas international auxiliari", ''Philosophia del Cognoscentia e del Scientia'', Rome, Italy: Pontificia Universitas Lateranensis, Pontificia Universitas Urbaniana, 1989.
39. Gode (1955).
40. Gode (1955).
41. Wilgenhof, Karel. ''Grammatica de Interlingua''. Union Mundial pro Interlingua, Beekbergen, Netherlands, 1995.
42. Gode (1955).
43. Gode (1955).
44. Wilgenhof, Karel. ''Grammatica de Interlingua''. Union Mundial pro Interlingua, Beekbergen, Netherlands, 1995.
45. Brauers, Karl. ''Grammatica synoptic de Interlingua''. Morges, Switzerland: Editiones Interlingua, 1975.
46. Gode (1955).
47. Wilgenhof, Karel. ''Grammatica de Interlingua''. Union Mundial pro Interlingua, Beekbergen, Netherlands, 1995.
48. These forms are found in Wilgenhof, who stops short of calling them irregular verb forms. Two such forms appear in Gode and Blair, and one is labeled irregular; none are in Brauers.
49. Gode (1955).
50. See for example Gode (1955), §115, "Table of Conjugation", pp. 38-40.
51. Gode (1955).
52. Wilgenhof, Karel. ''Grammatica de Interlingua''. Union Mundial pro Interlingua, Beekbergen, Netherlands, 1995.
53. Gode (1955).
54. Wilgenhof, Karel. ''Grammatica de Interlingua''. Union Mundial pro Interlingua, Beekbergen, Netherlands, 1995.
55. IALA (1971)
56. ''Novas de Interlingua'', May/June 1958.
References
★ Falk, Julia S. ''Women, Language and Linguistics: Three American stories from the first half of the twentieth century.'' Routledge, London & New York: 1999.
★ Interlingua; a grammar of the international language, , Alexander, Gode, Frederick Ungar Publishing, 1955,
★ Gopsill, F.P. ''Le historia antenatal de Interlingua.''. (In Interlingua.) Accessed 28 May 2005.
★ International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). ''General Report''. IALA, New York: 1945.
★ Interlingua-English; a dictionary of the international language, International Auxiliary Language Association, , , Frederick Ungar Publishing, 1971,
★ Pei, Mario. ''One Language for the World and How To Achieve It.'' Devin-Adair, New York; 1958.
★ Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI). ''Interlingua 2001: communication sin frontieras durante 50 annos'' (in Interlingua). Accessed 17 August 2006.
External links
★ Union Mundial pro Interlingua, the official site of the UMI
★ Search the Interlingua-English Dictionary online
★ Directory of websites in Interlingua at Open Directory Project
★ Manifesto de Interlingua (by Alexander Gode)
★ Interlingua - Latino Moderne (by Alexander Gode)
★ Guide to the papers of Alexander Gode at SUNY-Albany
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