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EspañolINDIAN RELIGIONS
:''See Religion in India for the religious demographics of the Republic of India.''
'Indian religions' as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in India or the Indian subcontinent. They are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences.
Other common geographic categories of religions are Middle Eastern religions, Far Eastern religions, African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions and classical religions of ancient Greece and Rome.Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5, 2007
Hinduism has its direct foundation in the Historical Vedic religion of India, and thus has no known founder. It has various sects/denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartha besides much smaller groups like Shrauta, and more recent Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.[1]
Buddhism and Jainism are continuation of ancient Shramana traditions, while Sikhism is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and spread from India, but suffered a decline in its homeland. It remains more widespread in East Asia.
Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share key concepts derived from the Sanskrit terminology of Vedic ritualism. All three traditions have notions of ''karma'', ''dharma'', ''yoga'', ''yajna'' and ''moksha''. Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of ''abhiseka'' is if importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.[2]
Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[3] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[4] The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300–1700 BCE and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility.[5] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilisation sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A ''linga-yoni'' of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found.
Main articles: historical Vedic religion
The three Vedas reflect the liturgy of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age (Vedic period) Indo-Aryan ritualism. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering sacrificial rites. The Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) are also considered Vedic. Elements of Vedic religion reach back into Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC.
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:
★ The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice.
★ Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice, cf. Zoroastrianism:
★
★ The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm,
★
★ The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar.
★
★ The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice
★ The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice
★ The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the the cosmic Purusha, cf. Purusha Sukta
★ The rituals described in the Atharvaveda concerned with medicine and healing practises, as well as black and white magic.
Main articles: Shramana
Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BC, though possibly 549–477 BC), stressed five vows, including ''ahimsa'' (non-violence) and ''asteya'' (non-stealing). The historical Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. The Sakyas claimed to be avatars of Vishnu.
Main articles: Vedanta
Main articles: Buddhism in India, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism, Greco-Buddhism
Indian Buddhism peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[6] Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and Kosala.
Main articles: decline of Buddhism in India, Hindu philosophy, Pala Empire
After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[7] Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Carvaka school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Carvaka is classified as a ''nastika'' ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[8] Our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[9] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.
Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.[10] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.
Main articles: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent, Colonial India
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started to become a major religion during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. Islam's spread in India mostly took place under the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire, greatly aided by the mystic Sufi tradition. Although historical evidence suggests the presence of Christianity in India since the first century, it became popular following European colonisation and Protestant missionary efforts.
Main articles: Religion in India, Hindu reform movements, Hindutva, Communalism (South Asia)
Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.[11] Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (''punyabhumi''), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.[12]
Looking at the population of the Indian subcontinent considered as a whole the present (as of 2007, according to the CIA Factbook) distribution of religious adherence in the follow-up states of British India is:
★ India: 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Sikh (1,100 M)
★ Pakistan: 97% Muslim, 2% Hindu, 1% Christian (165 M)
★ Bangladesh: 83% Muslim, 16% Hindu (150 M)
★ Myanmar: 89% Buddhist, 4% Muslim, 4% Christian (43 M)
★ Sri Lanka: 70% Buddhist, 7% Hindu, 7% Muslim, 7% Christian (20 M)
In total yielding 61% Hindus, 29% Muslims, 5% Buddhists, 2% Christians and 1% Sikhs.
Main articles: Vedic Brahmanism, Shrauta, Vedanta
''Astika'' and ''nastika'' are technical terms in Hinduism used to classify philosophical schools and persons, according to whether they accept the authority of the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as ''astika'' schools; while Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism are considered ''nastika'' schools.
The historical relationship of the Shramana traditions and Hinduism is somewhat controversial. Jainism has been variously labeled an "offshoot" or "reform movement" of Hinduism, and an anti-Brahmin social movement, a lesser twin of Buddhism, a religion of "extreme asceticism", a pacifist creed. Despite a general ''doctrinal'' tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or ''Samanars'' in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.
Main articles: Shramana, Jainism and Buddhism
Main articles: Sikhism
Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive human gurus.
The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in ''Vāhigurū''— represented by the sacred symbol of ''. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (''students'' or ''disciples'') and number over 23 million across the world.
1. Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents
2. c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
3. .
4. Ancient Indians made 'rock music'
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. The rise of Jainism and Buddhism
11. .
12. .
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Indian philosophy
★ Indology
★ Ayyavazhi and Hinduism
★ Buddhism and Hinduism
★ Jainism and Buddhism
★ Sikhism and Jainism
★ Sikhism and Hinduism
★ Eastern religion
;Statistics
★ Census of India 2001: Data on religion
;Constitution and law
★ Constitution of India
;Reports
★ International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India
An Indian Muslim couple weds on the bank of Karnataka's Tungabhadra River. Behind them, a Hindu man takes his ritual bath.
Religion is integral to Indian life; shown are roadside Hindu and Christian shrines in Jammu and Kashmir.
'Indian religions' as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in India or the Indian subcontinent. They are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences.
Other common geographic categories of religions are Middle Eastern religions, Far Eastern religions, African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions and classical religions of ancient Greece and Rome.Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5, 2007
Hinduism has its direct foundation in the Historical Vedic religion of India, and thus has no known founder. It has various sects/denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartha besides much smaller groups like Shrauta, and more recent Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.[1]
Buddhism and Jainism are continuation of ancient Shramana traditions, while Sikhism is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and spread from India, but suffered a decline in its homeland. It remains more widespread in East Asia.
Common traits
Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share key concepts derived from the Sanskrit terminology of Vedic ritualism. All three traditions have notions of ''karma'', ''dharma'', ''yoga'', ''yajna'' and ''moksha''. Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of ''abhiseka'' is if importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.[2]
History
Prehistory
A Harappan seal excavated at Mohenjo Daro showing a "Pashupati" figure in sitting in what is reminiscent of the padma asana posture (roughly 2000 BC).
Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[3] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[4] The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300–1700 BCE and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility.[5] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilisation sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A ''linga-yoni'' of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found.
Vedic religion
Main articles: historical Vedic religion
The three Vedas reflect the liturgy of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age (Vedic period) Indo-Aryan ritualism. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering sacrificial rites. The Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) are also considered Vedic. Elements of Vedic religion reach back into Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC.
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:
★ The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice.
★ Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice, cf. Zoroastrianism:
★
★ The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm,
★
★ The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar.
★
★ The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice
★ The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice
★ The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the the cosmic Purusha, cf. Purusha Sukta
★ The rituals described in the Atharvaveda concerned with medicine and healing practises, as well as black and white magic.
Shramana
Main articles: Shramana
Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BC, though possibly 549–477 BC), stressed five vows, including ''ahimsa'' (non-violence) and ''asteya'' (non-stealing). The historical Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. The Sakyas claimed to be avatars of Vishnu.
Vedanta
Main articles: Vedanta
Rise and spread of Buddhism
Main articles: Buddhism in India, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism, Greco-Buddhism
Indian Buddhism peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[6] Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and Kosala.
Rise of classical Hinduism
Main articles: decline of Buddhism in India, Hindu philosophy, Pala Empire
After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[7] Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Carvaka school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Carvaka is classified as a ''nastika'' ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[8] Our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[9] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.
The Jama Masjid in Delhi is one of the world's largest mosques.
Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.[10] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.
Islamic and Christian missions
Main articles: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent, Colonial India
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started to become a major religion during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. Islam's spread in India mostly took place under the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire, greatly aided by the mystic Sufi tradition. Although historical evidence suggests the presence of Christianity in India since the first century, it became popular following European colonisation and Protestant missionary efforts.
Modern India
Main articles: Religion in India, Hindu reform movements, Hindutva, Communalism (South Asia)
Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.[11] Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (''punyabhumi''), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.[12]
Looking at the population of the Indian subcontinent considered as a whole the present (as of 2007, according to the CIA Factbook) distribution of religious adherence in the follow-up states of British India is:
★ India: 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Sikh (1,100 M)
★ Pakistan: 97% Muslim, 2% Hindu, 1% Christian (165 M)
★ Bangladesh: 83% Muslim, 16% Hindu (150 M)
★ Myanmar: 89% Buddhist, 4% Muslim, 4% Christian (43 M)
★ Sri Lanka: 70% Buddhist, 7% Hindu, 7% Muslim, 7% Christian (20 M)
In total yielding 61% Hindus, 29% Muslims, 5% Buddhists, 2% Christians and 1% Sikhs.
Vedic ritualism and Vedanta
Main articles: Vedic Brahmanism, Shrauta, Vedanta
Astika and Nastika philosophy
''Astika'' and ''nastika'' are technical terms in Hinduism used to classify philosophical schools and persons, according to whether they accept the authority of the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as ''astika'' schools; while Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism are considered ''nastika'' schools.
The historical relationship of the Shramana traditions and Hinduism is somewhat controversial. Jainism has been variously labeled an "offshoot" or "reform movement" of Hinduism, and an anti-Brahmin social movement, a lesser twin of Buddhism, a religion of "extreme asceticism", a pacifist creed. Despite a general ''doctrinal'' tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or ''Samanars'' in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.
Shramana traditions
Main articles: Shramana, Jainism and Buddhism
Sikhism
Main articles: Sikhism
Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive human gurus.
The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in ''Vāhigurū''— represented by the sacred symbol of ''. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (''students'' or ''disciples'') and number over 23 million across the world.
Notes
1. Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents
2. c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
3. .
4. Ancient Indians made 'rock music'
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. The rise of Jainism and Buddhism
11. .
12. .
References
★
★
★
★
★
★
See also
★ Indian philosophy
★ Indology
★ Ayyavazhi and Hinduism
★ Buddhism and Hinduism
★ Jainism and Buddhism
★ Sikhism and Jainism
★ Sikhism and Hinduism
★ Eastern religion
External links
;Statistics
★ Census of India 2001: Data on religion
;Constitution and law
★ Constitution of India
;Reports
★ International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India
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