'Iceland', officially the 'Republic of Iceland' (; ) is a country of north-western
Europe, comprising the island of Iceland and its outlying islets in the North
Atlantic Ocean between the rest of Europe and
Greenland.
[1] As of July 2007, it had a population of 311,396. Its
capital and largest city is
Reykjavík.
Due to its location on the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland is
volcanically and
geologically active on a large scale; this identifies the landscape in various ways. The interior mainly consists of a
plateau characterized by
sand fields,
mountains and
glaciers, while many big
glacial rivers stream to the sea through the lowlands. Due to the
Gulf Stream, Iceland has a
temperate climate relative to its
latitude, which provides a habitable environment and nature.
Iceland has a history of habitation since about the year 874 when, according to ''
Landnámabók'', the Norwegian chieftain
Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norwegian settler on the island. Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the next centuries, people of
Nordic and
Gaelic origin settled in Iceland. Until the twentieth century, the
Icelandic population relied on fisheries and agriculture, and was from 1262 to 1944 a part of the
Norwegian and later the
Danish monarchies. In the twentieth century, Iceland's economy and
welfare system developed quickly.
Today, Iceland is a
developed country, the world's
fifth in terms of
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and
second in
human development. It is based upon a
free market economy where
service,
finance,
fishing and various
industries are the main
sectors.
Tourism is popular, as many people are attracted to Iceland's exotic scenery. Iceland is a member of the
UN,
NATO,
EFTA,
EEA and
OECD, but not of the
European Union.
History
Main articles: History of Iceland
Although there is some evidence indicating an early presence of
Irish monks, it is generally believed that Iceland was discovered and settled by
Norse explorers in the second half of the 9th century AD. The first permanent Norse settler was
Ingólfur Arnarson, who built his homestead in
Reykjavík in 874. Ingólfur was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Norsemen and their Irish slaves. By 930, most arable land had been claimed and the
Althing, a legislative and judiciary parliament, founded as the political hub of the
Icelandic Free State. Christianity was
peacefully adopted in 1000. The Free State lasted until 1262, at which point the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains.
The internal struggles and civil strife of the
Sturlung Era led to the signing of the
Old Covenant, which brought Iceland under the
Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed to
Denmark-Norway in the late 14th century when the kingdoms of Norway and Denmark were united in the
Kalmar Union. In the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe. Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society whose subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. Around the middle of the 16th century, King
Christian III of Denmark began to impose
Lutheranism on all his subjects. The last
Catholic bishop in Iceland was beheaded in 1550, with two of his sons, after which the country became fully
Lutheran. Lutheranism has remained the dominant religion ever since.
In 1814, following the
Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the
Treaty of Kiel. Iceland, however, remained a Danish dependency. The country's climate worsened during the 19th century, leading to mass emigrations to
North America, largely
Canada. Meanwhile, a new independence movement arose under the leadership of
Jón Sigurðsson, inspired by the
romantic and nationalist ideologies of mainland Europe. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland home rule, which was expanded in 1904. The Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on
December 1,
1918, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state under the Danish king.
During
World War II, the
German occupation of Denmark on
April 9,
1940 severed communications between Iceland and Denmark. A month later,
British military forces
sailed into Reykjavík harbour, violating Icelandic neutrality. Allied occupation of Iceland lasted throughout the war. In 1941, responsibility for the occupation was taken over by the
United States Army. Following a plebiscite, Iceland formally became an independent republic on
June 17,
1944. The occupation force left in 1946. Iceland became a member of
NATO on
March 30,
1949, amid
domestic controversy and riots. On
May 5 1951, a defence agreement was signed with the
United States -- American troops returned and stayed as part of the defence agreement throughout the
Cold War and until the autumn of 2006.
The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by
Marshall aid, the industrialization of the fishing industry and
Keynesian government management of the economy. The 1970s were marked by the
Cod Wars -- several disputes with the
United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits. The economy was greatly diversified and liberalised following Iceland's joining of the
European Economic Area in 1994.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative and electoral divisions of Iceland
Iceland is divided into
regions,
constituencies,
counties, and
municipalities. There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court
jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.
Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliament elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:
:
★ ''
Reykjavík North'' and ''
Reykjavík South'' (city regions);
:
★ ''
Southwest'' (three suburb areas around Reykjavík);
:
★ ''
Northwest'' and ''
Northeast'' (north half of Iceland, split); and,
:
★ ''
South'' (south half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).
The redistricting change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.
Iceland's twenty-three counties are, for the most part, historical divisions. Currently, Iceland is split up among twenty-six magistrates that represent government in various capacities. Among their duties are running the local police (except in Reykjavík, where there is a special office of police commissioner), tax collection, administering bankruptcy declarations, and performing civil marriages.
There are seventy-nine municipalities in Iceland which govern most local matters like schools, transportation and zoning.
Cities and towns
Main articles: List of settlements in Iceland
The city of
Reykjavík is the capital of Iceland, and its largest population centre. Reykjavík and the nearby towns of
Kópavogur,
Hafnarfjörður,
Mosfellsbær,
Garðabær,
Seltjarnarnes and
Álftanes form the urban
Greater Reykjavík Area, which is home to almost two-thirds of the island’s population. Other significant population centres include
Akureyri,
Keflavík(
Reykjanesbær),
Selfoss,
Akranes and
Ísafjörður.
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Iceland
Location and topography
A map of Iceland with major towns marked.
Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean just south of the
Arctic Circle, which passes through the small island of
Grímsey off Iceland's northern coast, but not through mainland Iceland. Unlike neighbouring
Greenland, Iceland is considered to be a part of
Europe, not of
North America, though geologically, the island belongs to both continents. Because of cultural, economic and linguistic similarities, Iceland in many contexts is also included in
Scandinavia. It is the
world's eighteenth-largest island, and Europe's second largest island following
Great Britain.
Approximately eleven percent of the island is glaciated.
[2] Many
fjords punctuate its 4,970
kilometre (3,088 mi) long coastline, which is also where most towns are situated because the island's interior, the
Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sands and mountains. The major towns are the capital
Reykjavík,
Keflavík, where the international airport is situated, and
Akureyri. The island of
Grímsey on the
Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland.
[3]
The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the
arctic fox. It came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the island. There are around 1,300 known species of
insects in Iceland, which is rather low compared with other countries (there are about 925,000 known species in the world). During the last
Ice Age almost all of the country was covered by permanent snow and glacier ice. This explains the low number of living species in Iceland.
When humans arrived,
birch forest and woodland probably covered 25–40% of Iceland’s land area, but soon the settlers started to remove the trees and forests to create fields and grazing land. During the early twentieth century the forests were at their minimum and were almost wiped out of existence. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees since, but this can not be compared with the original forests. Some of those planted forests have included new foreign species.
Iceland has four national parks:
Jökulsárgljúfur National Park,
Skaftafell National Park,
Snæfellsjökull National Park, and
Þingvellir National Park.
Area
★ Whole country: 103,000
km² (39,768.5
sq mi)
★ Vegetation: 23,805 km² (9,191 sq mi)
★ Lakes: 2,757 km² (1,065 sq mi)
★ Glaciers: 11,922 km² (4,603 sq mi)
★ Wasteland: 64,538 km² (24,918 sq mi)
[4]
Geological and volcanic activity
A geologically young land, Iceland is located on both a geological
hot spot, thought to be caused by a
mantle plume, and the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This combined location means that geologically the island is extremely active, having many
volcanoes, notably
Hekla,
Eldgjá, and
Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of
Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population; the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months after the eruption.
There are also
geysers (a word derived from the name of one in Iceland,
Geysir). With this widespread availability of
geothermal power, and also because of the numerous rivers and waterfalls that are harnessed for
hydro power, residents of most towns have hot water and home heat for a low price. The island itself is composed primarily of
basalt, a low-silica
lava associated with
effusive volcanism like
Hawaii. There are, however, a variety of
volcano-types on Iceland that produce more evolved lavas such as
rhyolite and
andesite.
Iceland controls
Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world. It rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between
November 8,
1963 and
June 5,
1968.
Largest lakes
★
Þórisvatn (
Reservoir): 83–88 km² (32–34 sq mi)
★
Þingvallavatn: 82 km² (32 sq mi)
★
Lögurinn: 53 km² (21 sq mi)
★
Mývatn: 37 km² (14 sq mi)
★
Hvítárvatn: 30 km² (12 sq mi)
★
Hóp: 30 km² (12 mi²)
★
Langisjór: 11.6 km² (4.5 sq mi)
Deepest lakes
★
Öskjuvatn: 220
m (722
ft)
★
Hvalvatn: 160 m (525 ft)
★
Jökulsárlón: 150 m (492 ft)
★
Þingvallavatn: 114 m (374 ft)
★
Þórisvatn (
Reservoir): 113 m (371 ft)
★
Lögurinn: 112 m (367 ft)
★
Kleifarvatn: 97 m (318 ft)
★
Hvítárvatn: 84 m (276 ft)
★
Langisjór: 75 m (246 ft)
Distance to nearest countries and islands
Climate
Strokkur, a
geyser in the process of erupting. Lying on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland is one of the most geologically active areas on Earth.
The climate of Iceland's coast is cold
oceanic. The warm
North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher temperatures than in most places of similar
latitude in the world. The winters are mild and windy while the summers are damp and cool. Regions in the world with similar climate are:
Aleutian Islands,
Alaska Peninsula and
Tierra del Fuego.
There are some variations in the climate between different parts of the island. Very generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter and windier than the north. Low lying inland areas in the north are the most arid. Snowfall in winters is more common in the north than the south. The
Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country.
The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on
22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the south-eastern coast. The lowest temperature was -38 °C (-36.4 °F) on
22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the interior of northeast. The temperature records for
Reykjavík are 24.8 °C (76.6 °F) on
11 August 2004, and -24.5 °C (-12.1 °F) on
21 January 1918.
Mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures (°C) (1961–1990)[5]| Location | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | | All |
|---|
| Reykjavík[6] | 1.9 | 2.8 | 3.2 | 5.7 | 9.4 | 11.7 | 13.3 | 13.0 | 10.1 | 6.8 | 3.4 | 2.2 | High | 7.0 |
|---|
| -3.0 | -2.1 | -2.0 | 0.4 | 3.6 | 6.7 | 8.3 | 7.9 | 5.0 | 2.2 | -1.3 | -2.8 | Low | 1.9 |
|---|
| Akureyri[7] | 0.9 | 1.7 | 2.1 | 5.4 | 9.5 | 13.2 | 14.5 | 13.9 | 9.9 | 5.9 | 2.6 | 1.3 | High | 6.7 |
|---|
| -5.5 | -4.7 | -4.2 | -1.5 | 2.3 | 6.0 | 7.5 | 7.1 | 3.5 | 0.4 | -3.5 | -5.1 | Low | 0.2 |
|---|
Animal and plant life
Iceland has very few mineral or agricultural resources. The short time since the last ice age, 10,000 years ago, has provided very little time for plants and animals to immigrate from elsewhere or evolve locally. Approximately three-quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of
grassland which is regularly grazed by livestock. The only tree native to Iceland is the northern birch ''
Betula pubescens''.
Permanent human settlement has caused great disturbance to an isolated ecosystem with thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation resulted in a loss of critical top soil due to erosion, greatly reducing the ability of birches to regrow. Today, only a few small birch stands can be found in isolated drainages.
The animals of Iceland include the
Icelandic sheep,
cattle, and the sturdy
Icelandic horse. Many varieties of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a main contributor to Iceland’s economy, accounting for more than half of its total exports. Wild mammals include the
arctic fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer. Before and around the 1900s polar bears occasionally visited the island, traveling on icebergs from Greenland. Birds, especially sea birds, are a very important part of Iceland's animal life.
Puffins, skuas, and
kittiwakes all nest on its sea cliffs. Iceland also has a commercial whaling fleet that is active despite international protests.
Language
Main articles: Icelandic language
Iceland's written and spoken language is
Icelandic, a
North Germanic language closely related to
Old Norse. The language is Nordic in origin and is one of the oldest living languages in Europe. It has changed very little from the original tongue spoken by the Norse settlers. It is the only living language to retain the
runic letter
Þ. While most European languages have greatly reduced the extent of
inflection, particularly in noun declension, Icelandic retains an inflectional grammar. Today, the closest language still in existence related to Icelandic is
Faroese.
In education, the use of
Icelandic Sign Language for the Deaf in Iceland is
regulated by the ''National Curriculum Guide''.
English and Danish are widely understood. Studying both these languages is a mandatory part of the school curriculum.
[8] Other commonly spoken languages are Swedish, Norwegian and German. Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians – it is often referred to as "Scandinavian" in Iceland.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Iceland
The original population of Iceland was of
Nordic and
Celtic origin. This is evident by literary evidence from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as
blood type and
genetic analysis. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Celtic origin.
[9] The modern population of Iceland is often described as a "homogeneous mixture of descendants of Norse and Celts" but some history scholars reject the alleged homogeneity as a myth that fails to take into account the fact that Iceland was never completely isolated from the rest of Europe and actually has had a lot of contact with traders and fishermen from many nations through the ages.
Iceland has extensive genealogical records about its population dating back to the
Age of Settlement. Although the accuracy of these records is debated, biopharmaceutical companies such as
deCODE Genetics see them as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases.
The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ashfall from volcanic eruptions, and plagues adversely affected the population several times. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population of the island was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the
Laki volcano during 1783–1784 the population reached a low of about 40,000. Improving living conditions triggered a rapid increase in population from the mid-19th century to the present day - from about 60,000 in 1850 to 310,000 in 2006.
In 2004, 20,669 people (7% of the total population) who were living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. 10,636 people (3.6% of the total population) had foreign citizenship. The most populous foreign residents are
Poles (7,000),
Danes (890),
ex-Yugoslavians (670),
Filipinos (647) and
Germans (540).
The south-west corner of Iceland is the most densely populated region and the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost capital in the world. The largest towns outside the capital region are
Akureyri and
Reykjanesbær.
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Iceland
The modern parliament, called "Alþingi" (
English:
Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the
Danish king. It was widely seen as a reestablishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the
Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799. It currently has sixty-three members, each of whom is elected by the population every four years. The
president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial office that serves as a
diplomat, figurehead and
head of state, but who can also block a law voted by the parliament and put it to a national referendum.
The
head of government is the
prime minister, who, together with the cabinet, takes care of the
executive part of
government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after general elections to Althing; however, this process is usually conducted by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed (under the condition that it has a majority support in Althing). Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves in reasonable time does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet himself. This has never happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 the regent of the country (
Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941) did appoint a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Björnsson in fact became the country's first president in 1944.
The governments of Iceland have almost always been coalitions with two or more parties involved, due to the fact that no single political party has received a majority of seats in Althing in the republic period. The extent of the political powers possessed by the office of the president is disputed by legal scholars in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions suggest differently. Iceland elected the world's first female president,
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir in 1980 and she retired from office in 1996. Elections for the office of town councils, parliament and presidency are all held every four years. The next elections are going to be held in 2010, 2011 and 2008, respectively.
Following the
May 2007 parliamentary elections, the
current government is a coalition of the
right wing Independence Party and the
social democratic Alliance under Prime Minister
Geir Haarde of the Independence Party. The government enjoys a vast majority in Althing, with 43 out of 63 members supporting it.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Iceland
Iceland is the fifth most productive country in the world based on
GDP per capita at
purchasing power parity. It is also ranked second on the 2006
United Nations Human Development Index.
Renewable energy provides over 70% of the nation's primary energy
[10] and the country expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Except for its abundant
hydro-electric and
geothermal power, Iceland lacks natural resources; historically its economy has depended heavily on the
fishing industry, which still provides almost 40% of export earnings and employs 8% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks as well as to drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products,
aluminium, and
ferrosilicon. Although the Icelandic economy still relies heavily on fishing its importance is diminishing as the travel industry and other service, technology and various other industries grow.
The left-right government plans to continue its policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatising state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to
EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources.
Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, and new developments in
software production,
biotechnology, and financial services are taking place. The
tourism sector is also expanding, with the recent trends in
ecotourism and
whale-watching. Growth slowed between 2000 and 2002, but the economy expanded by 4.3% in 2003 and grew by 6.2% in 2004. The unemployment rate of 1.3% (2006 est.) is among the lowest in the
European Economic Area.
Over 99% of the country's electricity is produced from
hydropower and
geothermal energy.
[10] The country's largest geothermal power plant is located in
Nesjavellir, while the
Kárahnjúkar dam will be the country's largest hydroelectric power plant.
Iceland's
agriculture industry consists mainly of
potatoes,
turnips,
green vegetables (in
greenhouses),
mutton,
dairy products and
fish.
[12]
The primary currency of Iceland is the
Icelandic Króna (ISK).
Iceland's former foreign minister
Valgerður Sverrisdóttir has said in an interview on
15 January 2007 that she seriously wishes to look into whether Iceland can join the
Euro without being a member of the
EU. She believes it is difficult to maintain an independent currency in a small economy on the
open European market.
[13] Borgartún is the financial center in Reykjavik, hosting a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the
Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.
Religion
Main articles: Religion in Iceland
Icelanders enjoy
freedom of religion under the
constitution, though there is no
separation of church and state. The
National Church of Iceland, a
Lutheran body, is the
state church. The national registry keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2005, Icelanders divided into religious groups as follows:
★ 82.1% members of the National Church of Iceland.
★ 4.7% members of the Free Lutheran Churches of Reykjavík and Hafnarfjörður.
★ 2.6% not members of any religious group.
★ 2.4% members of the
Roman Catholic Church, which has a
Diocese of Reykjavík
★ 5.5% members of unregistered religious organisations or with no specified religious affiliation
The remaining 2.7% is mostly divided between around 20–25 other
Christian denominations and sects, with less than 1% of the population in non-Christian religious organisations, the largest of those being
Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið, a neo-pagan group.
[14]
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Iceland
Icelandic culture has its roots in
Viking and
Norse traditions.
Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the
sagas and
eddas which were written around the time of the
island’s settlement. Icelanders generally have a traditional
liberal Nordic outlook, similar to other Nordic countries such as
Norway and
Sweden. Until the
Christianization of Iceland, many traditional Viking beliefs held strong, remnants of which remain today. For example, some Icelanders either believe in
elves or are unwilling to rule out their existence.
[15] Iceland has ranks very high on the
Human Development Index, and was recently ranked the fourth happiest country in the world.
[16]
The majority of national foods are based around
fish,
lamb and
dairy products.
Þorramatur is a national food, consisting of many different dishes; this is not consumed on a daily basis but usually around the month of
Þorri. Traditional dishes include
skyr, cured ram
scrota, cured
shark, singed
sheep heads and
black pudding.
Though changing in the past years, Icelanders remain a very healthy nation. Children and teenagers participate in various types of leisure activities. Popular sports today are mainly
football,
track and field,
handball and
basketball. Sports such as
golf,
tennis,
swimming,
chess and
horseback riding on
Icelandic horses are also popular.
Iceland is home to the television station
Nick Jr.'s animated program ''
LazyTown'' (Icelandic: ''Latibær''), a children's television program created by
Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular program for children and adults, and is shown in over 98 countries, including the US, Canada, Sweden and Latin America.
[17] The LazyTown Studios are located in
Garðabær. Iceland was also the home of
The Sugarcubes, a popular 80's and 90's pop group; whose members included the now famous singer
Björk.
In 1996, Parliament passed legislation to create
registered partnerships for same-sex couples, covering nearly all the rights and benefits of
marriage. In 2006, by unanimous vote of Parliament, further legislation was passed, granting same-sex couples the same rights as different-sex couples in adoption, parenting and assisted insemination treatment.
See also
Geography
Politics
★
List of political parties in Iceland
★
List of Presidents of Iceland
★
Prime minister of Iceland
★
Foreign relations of Iceland
★
Iceland and the European Union
Economy
★
Whaling in Iceland
★
Geothermal power in Iceland
★
Icelandic hydroelectric power stations
★
Hydrogen economy - Examples and pilot programs
★
Renewable energy in Iceland
Culture
Other
References
1. CIA - The World Fact book -- Iceland
2. Icelandic glaciers
3. CIA - The World Factbook -- Iceland
4. National Land Survey of Iceland
5. Icelandic Climatic Data (English introduction), Veđurstofa Íslands (Icelandic Meteorological Office)
6. Reykjavík weather station (#1) climactic means chart from above site
7. Akureyi weather station (#422) climactic means chart from above site
8. Iceland Export Directory[http://www.icelandexport.is/english/about_iceland/icelandic_language/
9. Helgason, Agnar et al. (2000). Estimating Scandinavian and Gaelic Ancestry in the Male Settlers of Iceland. ''American Journal of Human Genetics'', 67:697–717, 2000. Institute of Biological Anthropology, University of Oxford.
10. Gross energy consumption by source 1987–2005, ''Statistics Iceland'', accessed 2007-05-14
11. Gross energy consumption by source 1987–2005, ''Statistics Iceland'', accessed 2007-05-14
12. CIA - The World Factbook -- Iceland
13. Slovenia celebrates full entry into euro club Helena Spongenberg
14. CIA - The World Factbook -- Iceland Hagstofa Íslands
15. www.nytimes.com/2005/07/13/international/europe/13elves.html?ex=1278907200&en=5e99759b563f81fe&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss
16. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061113093726.htm
17. entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/theatre/article2055496.ece
External links
★
Map (click on it to enlarge)
★
Official Gateway of Iceland
★
Daily news from Iceland in English from Iceland Review online
★
The Icelandic Government's website in English
★
Iceland Information
★
History of Iceland: Primary Documents
★
Treasures of the national library of Iceland displayed via
The European Library
★
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