(Redirected from Hindu Calendar)
A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72.
The 'Hindu calendar' used in ancient times has undergone many changes in the process of regionalization, and today there are several regional 'Indian
calendars', as well as an
Indian national calendar.
Most of these calendars are inherited from a system first enunciated in ''
Jyotish Vedanga'' of Lagadha, a late BCE adjunct to the
Vedas, standardized in the ''
Surya Siddhanta'' (3rd century CE) and subsequently reformed by astronomers such as
Aryabhata (
499 CE),
Varahamihira (6th c. CE), and
Bhaskara (12th c. CE). There are differences and regional variations abound in these computations, but the following is a general overview.
Day
The Hindu calendrical day starts with local sunrise. It is allotted five "properties", called ''anga''-s. They are:
# the ''
tithi'' active at sunrise
# the ''
vaasara'' or weekday
# the ''
nakshatra'' in which the moon resides at sunrise
# the ''
yoga'' active at sunrise
# the ''
karana'' active at sunrise.
Together these are called the ''panchÄnga''-s where ''pancha'' means "five" in
Sanskrit. An explanation of the terms follows.
Tithi
The (anticlockwise) angular distance between the sun and moon as measured from the earth along the
ecliptic (circle on the sky in which the sun, moon and planets seem to move) can vary between 0° and 360°. This is divided into 30 parts. Each part ''ends'' at 12°, 24° etc. The time spent by the moon in each of these parts (i.e. the time taken for the angular distance to increase in steps of 12° starting from 0°) is called one ''tithi''.
The month has two ''paksha''-s or fortnights. The first 15 ''tithi''-s constitute the bright fortnight or ''shukla paksha'' and the next 15 ''tithi''-s constitute the dark fortnight or ''krishna paksha''. ''tithi''-s are indicated by their ''paksha'' and ordinal number within the ''paksha''. The 15th ''tithi'' of the bright fortnight (full moon) is called ''pÅ«rnimÄ'' and the 15th ''tithi'' of the dark fortnight (new moon) is called ''amÄvÄsyÄ''.
The ''tithi'' in which the moon is at the time of sunrise of a day is taken to be the ''tithi'' for the day.
Vaasara
Vaasara, often abbreviated as ''vaara'' in
Sanskrit-derived languages,
refers to the days of the
week, which are possibly of Sumerian/Babylonian origin
[1], and bear striking similarities with the names in many cultures:
; Following are the
Hindi and
English analogues in parentheses:
# Ravi vÄsara (''ravi-vaara'' or Sunday; ravi =
sun)
# Soma vÄsara (''som-vaara'' or Monday; soma =
moon)
# Mangala vÄsara (''mangal-vaara'' or Tuesday; mangala =
Mars)
# Budha vÄsara (''budh-vaara'' or Wednesday; budh =
Mercury)
# Guru vÄsara (''guru-vaara'' or ''vrihaspati-vaara'' or Thursday; vrihaspati/guru =
Jupiter)
# Shukra vÄsara (''shukra-vaara'' or Friday; shukra =
Venus)
# Shani vÄsara (''shani-vaara'' or Saturday; shani =
Saturn)
There are many variations of these names in the regional languages,
mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved.
Nakshatra
The ecliptic is divided into 27
nakshatras, which are variously called lunar houses or
asterisms.
These reflect the moon's cycle against the fixed stars, 27 days and 7¾ hours, the fractional part being compensated by an intercalary 28th ''nakshatra''.
Nakshatra computation appears to have been well known at the time of the
Rig Veda (2nd–1st millennium BCE).
The ecliptic is divided into the ''nakshatra''s eastwards starting from a
reference point which is traditionally a point on the ecliptic directly
opposite the star
Spica called ''ChitrÄ'' in Sanskrit. (Other slightly-different definitions exist.) It is called 'MeshÄdi' or the "start of
Aries"; this is when the
equinox — where the ecliptic meets the equator — was in Aries (today it is in Pisces, 28 degrees before Aries starts). The difference between MeshÄdi and the present equinox is known as ayanÄngsha or fraction of ecliptic. Given the 25,800 year cycle for the
precession of the equinoxes, the equinox was directly opposite Spica in
285 CE., around the date of the Surya Siddhanta
[2][3].
The ''nakshatra''-s with their corresponding regions of sky are given below, following Basham
[4]. As always, there are many versions with minor differences. The names on the right-hand column give roughly the correspondence of the ''nakshatra''-s to modern names of stars. Note that ''nakshatra''-s are (in this context) not just single stars but are segments on the ecliptic characterised by one or more stars. Hence there are more than one star mentioned for each ''nakshatra''.
| Ashvinī | β and γ Arietis |
| Bharanī | 35, 39, and 41 Arietis |
| KrittikÄ | Pleiades |
| Rohinī | Aldebaran |
| Mrigashīrsha | λ, φ Orionis |
| Ä€rdrÄ | Betelgeuse |
| Punarvasu | Castor and Pollux |
| Pushya | γ, δ and θ Cancri |
| Ä€shleshÄ | δ, ε, η, Ï, and σ Hydrae |
| MaghÄ | Regulus |
| Pūrva Phalgunī | δ and θ Leonis |
| Uttara Phalgunī | Denebola |
| Hasta | α to ε Corvi |
| ChitrÄ | Spica |
| SvÄtÄ« | Arcturus |
| VishÄkhÄ | α, β, γ and ι Librae |
| AnurÄdhÄ | β, δ and Ï€ Scorpionis |
| Jyeshtha | α, σ, and τ Scorpionis |
| Mūla | ε, ζ, η, θ, ι, κ, λ, μ and ν Scorpionis |
| PÅ«rva AshÄdhÄ | δ and ε Sagittarii |
| Uttara AshÄdhÄ | ζ and σ Sagittarii |
| Shravana | α, β and γ Aquilae |
| DhanishthÄ | α to δ Delphinis |
| Shatabhishaj | γ Aquarii |
| PÅ«rva BhÄdrapada | α and β Pegasi |
| Uttara BhÄdrapada | γ Pegasi and α Andromedae |
| Revatī | ζ Piscium |
An additional 28th intercalary nakshatra, Abhijit (alpha, epsilon and zeta Lyrae - Vega - between Uttarasharha and Sravana), is in between Uttarashada and Sravana. Last two (third and fourth) Padas of Uttrashada and first two (first and second) Padas of Sravana are considered to be Abhijit.
The ''nakshatra'' in which the moon lies at the time of sunrise of a day is the ''nakshatra'' for the day.
Yoga
Yoga computation involves dividing the sum of the longitudes of the sun and moon into 27 parts. First one computes
the angular distance along the ecliptic of each object, taking the ecliptic to start at ''Mesha'' or Aries (''MeshÄdi'', as defined above): this is called the longitude of that object.
The longitude of the sun and the longitude of the moon are added, and normalized to a value ranging between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360.) This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the
arcminute which means 1/60 of a degree.) These parts are called the ''yoga''-s. They are labeled:
# Vishkambha
# Prīti
# Ä€yushmÄn
# SaubhÄgya
# Shobhana
# Atiganda
# Sukarman
# Dhriti
# Shūla
# Ganda
# Vriddhi
# Dhruva
# VyÄghÄta
# Harshana
# Vajra
# Siddhi
# VyatÄ«pÄta
# Varigha
# Parigha
# Shiva
# Siddha
# SÄdhya
# Shubha
# Shukla
# BrÄhma
# MÄhendra
# Vaidhriti
Again, minor variations may exist. The ''yoga'' that is active during sunrise of a day is the ''yoga'' for the day.
Karana
A ''karana'' is half of a
tithi. To be precise, a ''karana'' is the time required for the angular distance between the sun and the moon to increase in steps of 6° starting from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi above.)
Since the ''tithi''-s are thirty in number, one would expect there to be sixty ''karana''-s. But there are only eleven. There are four "fixed" ''karana''-s and seven "repeating" ''karana''-s. The four "fixed" ''karana''-s are:
# Kimstughna
# Shakuni
# ChatushpÄd
# NÄgava
The seven "repeating" ''karana''-s are:
# Bava
# BÄlava
# Kaulava
# Taitula
# GarajÄ
# VanijÄ
# Vishti (BhadrÄ)
★ Now the first half of the first ''tithi'' (of the bright fortnight) is always ''Kimstughna karana''. Hence this ''karana'' is "fixed".
★ Next, the seven repeating ''karana''-s repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-''tithi''-s. Thus these are the "repeating" ''karana''-s.
★ The three remaining half-''tithi''-s take the remaining "fixed" ''karana''-s in order. Thus these are also "fixed".
★ Thus one gets sixty ''karana''-s from eleven.
The ''karana'' active during sunrise of a day is the ''karana'' for the day.
(Rashi)
Saur Maas
(solar months) | Ritu
(season) | Gregorian
months | Zodiac |
|---|
| Mesha | Vasant
(spring) | April/May | Aries |
| Vrushabha | May/June | Taurus |
| Mithuna | Grishma
(summer) | June/July | Gemini |
| Karka | July/Aug. | Cancer |
| Simha | Varsha
(monsoon) | Aug./Sept. | Leo |
| Kanya | Sept./Oct. | Virgo |
| Tula | Sharad
(autumn) | Oct./Nov. | Libra |
| Vrushchika | Nov./Dec. | Scorpius |
| Dhanu | Hemant
(autumn-winter) | Dec./Jan. | Sagittarius |
| Makara | Jan./Feb. | Capricornus |
| Kumbha | Shishir
(Winter-Spring) | Feb./Mar. | Aquarius |
| Meena | Mar./Apr. | Pisces |
Months of the lunisolar calendar
When a new moon occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunar month. So it is evident that the end of the lunar month will coincide with a new moon. A lunar month has 29 or 30 days (according to the movement of the moon).
The ''tithi'' at sunrise of a day is the only label of the day. There is no running day number from the first day to the last day of the month. This has some unique results, as explained below:
Sometimes two successive days have the same ''tithi''. In such a case, the latter is called an ''adhika tithi'' where ''adhika'' means "extra". Sometimes, one ''tithi'' may never touch a sunrise, and hence no day will be labeled by that ''tithi''. It is then said to be a ''tithi kshaya'' where ''kshaya'' means "loss".
Naming lunar months
There are twelve lunar month names:
# Chaitra
# VaishÄkha
# Jyaishtha
# Ä€shÄdha
# ShrÄvana
# BhÄdrapada
# Āshwina
# KÄrtika
# MÄrgashÄ«rsha
# Pausha
# MÄgha
# PhÄlguna
Determining which name a lunar month takes is somewhat indirect. It is based on the ''rÄshi'' into which the 'sun' transits within a lunar month, i.e. before the new moon ending the month.
There are twelve ''rÄshi'' names, there are twelve lunar month names. When the sun transits into the ''Mesha rÄshi'' in a lunar month, then the name of the lunar month is ''Chaitra''. When the sun transits into ''Vrishabha'', then the lunar month is ''VaishÄkha''. So on.
The
Sanskrit grammatical derivation of the lunar month names ''Chaitra'' etc is: the (lunar) month which has its central full moon occurring at or near the ''nakshatra ChitrÄ'' is called ''Chaitra''. Similarly, for the ''nakshatra''-s ''VishÄkhÄ'', ''JyeshthÄ'', ''(PÅ«rva) AshÄdhÄ'', ''Shravana'', ''BhÄdrapada'', ''AshvinÄ«'' (old name ''Ashvayuj''), ''KrittikÄ'', ''MrigashÄ«rsha'', ''Pushya'', ''MaghÄ'' and ''(PÅ«rva/Uttara) PhalgunÄ«'' the names ''VaishÄkha'' etc are derived.
The lunar months are split into two pakshas of 15 days.
The waxing paksha is called shuklapaksha, ''light half'', and the waning paksha the krishnapaksha, ''dark half''. There are two different systems for making the lunar calendar:
★ ''amanta'' or ''mukhya mana system'' - a month begins with a new moon, mostly followed in the southern states
★ ''purnimanta'' or ''gauna mana system'' - a month begins with a full moon, followed more in the North.
Extra months
When the sun does not at all transit into any ''rÄshi'' but simply keeps moving within a ''rÄshi'' in a lunar month (i.e. before a new moon), then that lunar month will be named according to the first upcoming transit. It will also take the epithet of ''adhika'' or "extra". For example, if a lunar month elapsed without a solar transit and the next transit is into ''Mesha'', then this month without transit is labeled ''adhika Chaitra''. The next month will be labeled according to its transit as usual and will get the epithet ''nija'' ("original") or ''shuddha'' ("clean"). [Note that an ''adhika mÄsa'' (month) is the first of two whereas an ''adhika tithi'' is the second of two.]
An ''adhika mÄsa'' occurs once every two or three years (meaning, with a gap of one or two years without ''adhika mÄsa''-s).
Lost months
If the sun transits into 'two' ''rÄshi''-s within a lunar month, then the month will have to be labeled by both transits and will take the epithet ''kshaya'' or "loss". There is considered to be a "loss" because: if the sun had transited into only one ''raashi'' in a lunar month as is usual, there would have been two separate months labeled by the two transits in question; but now there is only one month labeled by both transits!
For example, if the sun transits into ''Mesha'' and ''Vrishabha'' in a lunar month, then it will be called ''Chaitra-Vaishaakha kshaya''. There will be no separate months labeled ''Chaitra'' and ''VaishÄkha''.
A ''kshaya mÄsa'' occurs very rarely. Known gaps between occurrence of ''kshaya mÄsa''-s are 19 and 141 years. The last was in 1983. Jan-15 through Feb-12 were ''Pausha-MÄgha kshaya''. Feb-13 onwards was ''(adhika) PhÄlguna''.
'Special Case:'
If there is no solar transit in one lunar month but there are two transits in the next lunar month,
★ the first month will be labeled by the first transit of the second month (as usual) and take the epithet ''adhika'' and
★ the next month will be labeled by both its transits as is usual for a ''kshaya mÄsa''.
This is a very very rare occurrence. The last was in 1315. Oct-08 to Nov-05 were ''adhika KÄrtika''. Nov-06 to Dec-05 were ''KÄrtika-MÄgashÄ«rsha kshaya''. Dec-06 onwards was ''Pausha''.
Religious observances in case of extra and lost months
Among normal months, ''adhika'' months, and ''kshaya'' months, the earlier are considered "better" for religious purposes. That means, if a festival should fall on the 10th ''tithi'' of the ''Ä€shvayuja'' month (this is called
VijayadashamÄ«) and there are two ''Ä€shvayuja'' months caused by the existence of an ''adhika Ä€shvayuja'', the first ''adhika'' month will not see the festival, and the festival will be observed only in the second ''nija'' month. However, if the second month is ''Äshvayuja kshaya'' then the festival will be observed in the first ''adhika'' month itself.
When two months are rolled into one in the case of a ''kshaya mÄsa'', the festivals of both months will also be rolled into this ''kshaya mÄsa''. For example, the festival of
MahÄshivarÄtri which is to be observed on the fourteenth ''tithi'' of the ''MÄgha krishna paksha'' was, in 1983, observed on the corresponding ''tithi'' of ''Pausha-MÄgha kshaya krishna paksha'', since in that year, ''Pausha'' and ''MÄgha'' were rolled into one, as mentioned above.
Year of the lunisolar calendar
The new year day is the first day of the ''shukla paksha'' of ''Chaitra''. In the case of ''adhika'' or ''kshaya'' months relating to ''Chaitra'', the aforementioned religious rules apply giving rise to the following results:
★ If an ''adhika Chaitra'' is followed by a ''nija Chaitra'', the new year starts with the ''nija Chaitra''.
★ If an ''adhika Chaitra'' is followed by a ''Chaitra-VaishÄkha kshaya'', the new year starts with the ''adhika Chaitra''.
★ If a ''Chaitra-VaishÄkha kshaya'' occurs with no ''adhika Chaitra'' before it, then it starts the new year.
★ If a ''PhÄlguna-Chaitra kshaya'' occurs, it starts the new year.
Another kind of lunisolar calendar
There is another kind of lunisolar calendar which differs from the former in the way the months are named. This section describes the differences involved, and may be skipped if the article is already too complicated for the reader. It is only included for completeness.
When a full moon (instead of new moon) occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunar month. In this case, the end of the lunar month will coincide with a full moon. This is called the ''pÅ«rnimÄnta mÄna'' or "full-moon-ending reckoning", as against the ''amÄnta mÄna'' or "new-moon-ending reckoning" used before.
This definition leads to a lot of complications:
★ The first ''paksha'' of the month will be ''krishna'' and the second will be ''shukla''.
★ The new year is still on the first day of the ''Chaitra shukla paksha''. The next ''paksha''-s will be the ''VaishÄkha krishna'', ''VaishÄkha shukla'', ''Jyaishtha krishna'' and so on, till ''PhÄlguna krishna'', ''PhÄlguna shukla'' and ''Chaitra krishna'', which is now the last ''paksha'' of the year.
★ The ''shukla paksha'' of a given month, say ''Chaitra'', comprises the same actual days in both systems, as can be deduces from a careful analysis of the rules. However, the ''Chaitra krishna paksha''-s defined by the two systems will be on different days, since the ''Chaitra krishna paksha'' precedes the ''Chaitra shukla paksha'' is the ''pÅ«rnimÄnta'' system but follows it in the ''amÄnta'' system.
★ Though the regular months are defined by the full moon, the ''adhika'' and ''kshaya'' lunar months are still defined by the new moon. That is, even if the ''pÅ«rnimÄnta'' system is followed, ''adhika'' or ''kshaya'' months will start with the first sunrise after the new moon, and end with the new moon.
★ The ''adhika'' month will therefore get sandwiched between the two ''paksha''-s of the ''nija'' months. For example, a ''ShrÄvana adhika mÄsa'' will be inserted as follows:
★ # ''nija ShrÄvana krishna paksha''
★ # ''adhika ShrÄvana shukla paksha''
★ # ''adhika ShrÄvana krishna paksha'' and
★ # ''nija ShrÄvana shukla paksha''
after which ''BhÄdrapada krishna paksha'' will come as usual.
★ If there is an ''adhika Chaitra'', then it will follow the ''(nija) Chaitra krishna paksha'' at the end of the year. Only with the ''nija Chaitra shukla paksha'' will the new year start. The only exception is when it is followed by a ''kshaya'', and that will be mentioned later.
★ The ''kshaya'' month is more complicated. If in the ''amÄnta'' system there is a ''Pausha-MÄgha kshaya'', then in the ''pÅ«rnimÄnta'' system there will be the following ''paksha''-s:
★ # ''Pausha krishna paksha''
★ # ''Pausha-Maagha kshaya shukla paksha''
★ # ''Maagha-Phaalguna kshaya krishna paksha'' and a
★ # ''PhÄlguna shukla paksha''.
★ The special ''kshaya'' case where an ''adhika mÄsa'' precedes a ''kshaya mÄsa'' gets even more convoluted. First, we should remember that the ''Ä€shvayuja shukla paksha'' is the same in both the systems. After this come the following ''paksha''-s:
★ # ''nija KÄrtika krishna paksha''
★ # ''adhika KÄrtika shukla paksha''
★ # ''adhika KÄrtika krishna paksha''
★ # ''KÄrtika-MÄgashÄ«rsha kshaya shukla paksha''
★ # ''MÄgashÄ«rsha-Pausha kshaya krishna paksha''
★ # ''Pausha shukla paksha''
followed by the ''MÄgha krishna paksha'' etc as usual.
★ The considerations for the new year are:
★ # If there is a ''Chaitra-VaishÄkha kshaya shukla paksha'':
★ ## if an ''adhika Chaitra'' precedes it, then the ''adhika Chaitra shukla paksha'' starts the new year
★ ## if not, the ''kshaya shukla paksha'' starts the new year
★ # If there is a ''PhÄlguna-Chaitra kshaya shukla paksha'' then it starts the new year
It must be noted, however, that none of these above complications cause a change in the day of religious observances. Since only the name of the ''krishna paksha''-s of the months will change in the two systems, festivals which fall on the ''krishna paksha'' will be defined by the appropriate changed name. That is, the
MahÄshivarÄtri, defined in the ''amÄnta mÄna'' to be observed on the fourteenth of the ''MÄgha krishna paksha'' will now (in the ''pÅ«rnimÄnta mÄna'') be defined by the ''PhÄlguna krishna paksha''.
Correspondence of the lunisolar calendar to the solar calendar
A
lunisolar calendar is always a calendar based on the moon's celestial motion, which in a way keeps itself close to a
solar calendar based on the sun's (apparent) celestial motion. That is, the lunisolar calendar's new year is to kept always close (within certain limits) to a solar calendar's new year.
Since the Hindu lunar month names are based on solar transits, and the month of ''Chaitra'' will, as defined above, always be close to the solar month of ''Mesha'', the Hindu lunisolar calendar will always keep in track with the Hindu solar calendar.
The Hindu solar calendar by contrast starts on April 14-15 each year. This signifies the sun's "entry" into Mesha rasi and is celebrated as the New Year in Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Manipur, Nepal, Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Tripura. The first month of the year is called "Chitterai" in Tamil, "Medam" in Malayalam and Baisakh in Bengali/Punjabi. This solar new year is now celebrated on the same day in Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand due to Hindu influence on those countries.
Year numbering
The epoch (starting point or first day of the zeroth year) of the current era of Hindu calendar (both solar and lunisolar) is
February 18 3102 BCE in the
proleptic Julian calendar or
January 23 3102 BCE in the
proleptic Gregorian calendar. Both the solar and lunisolar calendars started on this date. After that, each year is labeled by the number of years 'elapsed' since the epoch.
This is a unique feature of the Hindu calendar. All other systems use the current ordinal number of the year as the year label. But just as a person's true age is measured by the number of years that have elapsed starting from the date of the person's birth, the Hindu calendar measures the number of years elapsed.
As of May 18, 2005, 5106 years had elapsed in the Hindu calendar, so this is the 5107
th Hindu calendar year. Note that the lunisolar calendar year will usually start earlier than the solar calendar year.
Other systems of numbering the Hindu years can be read about at the
Samvat article.
Year names
Apart from the numbering system outlined above, there is also a cycle of 60 calendar year names, called
Samvatsaras, which started at the first year (at elapsed years zero) and runs continuously:
: 1. Prabhava
: 2. Vibhava
: 3. Shukla
: 4. Pramoda
: 5. PrajÄpati
: 6. Āngirasa
: 7. Shrīmukha
: 8. BhÄva
: 9. Yuvan
:10. DhÄtri
:11. Īshvara
:12. BahudhÄnya
:13. PramÄthin
:14. Vikrama
:15. Vrisha
:16. ChitrabhÄnu
:17. SvabhÄnu
:18. TÄrana
:19. PÄrthiva
:20. Vyaya (2006-2007 AD/CE) |
:21. Sarvajit (2007-2008 AD/CE)
:22. SarvadhÄrin
:23. Virodhin
:24. Vikrita
:25. Khara
:26. Nandana
:27. Vijaya
:28. Jaya
:29. Manmatha
:30. Durmukha
:31. Hemalambin
:32. Vilambin
:33. VikÄrin
:34. ShÄrvari
:35. Plava
:36. Shubhakrit
:37. Shobhana
:38. Krodhin
:39. VishvÄvasu
:40. ParÄbhava |
:41. Plavanga
:42. KÄ«laka
:43. Saumya
:44. SÄdhÄrana
:45. Virodhikrit
:46. ParitÄpin
:47. PramÄdin
:48. Ānanda
:49. RÄkshasa
:50. Anala
:51. Pingala
:52. KÄlayukti
:53. SiddhÄrthin
:54. Raudra
:55. Durmati
:56. Dundubhi
:57. RudhirodgÄrin
:58. RaktÄksha
:59. Krodhana
:60. Akshaya
|
Eras
Hinduism has of four eras or ages, of which we are currently in the last. The four are:
#
Krita Yuga or
Satya Yuga
#
TretÄ Yuga
#
DvÄpara Yuga
#
Kali Yuga
They are often translated into English as the golden, silver, bronze and Iron Ages. (
Yuga means era or age.) The ages see a gradual decline of
dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, life span and emotional and physical strength. The epoch provided above is the start of the ''Kali Yuga''. The ''Kali Yuga'' is 432,000 years long. The ''DvÄpara'', ''TretÄ'' and ''Krita (Satya) Yuga''-s are two, three and four times the length of the ''Kali Yuga'' respectively. Thus they together constitute 4,320,000 years. This is called a ''Chaturyuga''.
A thousand and a thousand (i.e. two thousand) ''chaturyuga''-s are said to be one day and night of the creator
BrahmÄ. He (the creator) lives for 100 years of 360 such days and at the end, he is said to dissolve, along with his entire Creation, into the Eternal Soul or ''
ParamÄtman''.
A different view of the timespan of a yuga is given by Swami
Sri Yukteswar Giri, the
guru of
Paramahansa Yogananda. This is detailed in his book,
The Holy Science. According to this view, one complete yuga cycle is equal to one complete "precession of the equinox", a period of aprroximately 24,000 years. The ascending phase consists of a 1200 year Kali, 2400 year Dwapara, 3600 year Treta and 4800 year Krita (Satya) yuga. The descending phase reverses this order, thus both ascending and descending phases equal 24,000 years. According to calculations given in the book, the most recent yuga change was in 1699, when the Earth passed from Kali Yuga (the lowest material age) to DvÄpara Yuga (the second age associated with electrical, atomic and finer forces). We are in an ascending spiral right now, and will pass into the TretÄ Yuga in 4100 AD. According to the book, the motion of the stars moving across the sky (a.k.a.precession) is the observable of the Sun's motion around another star. The quality of human intellect depends on the distance of the
Sun and Earth from a certain point in space known as the Grand Center, Magnetic Center or Vishnunabi
Vishnu. The closer the Sun is to it, the more subtle energy the
Solar System receives, and the greater is the level of human spiritual and overall development. As the Sun moves around its companion star, it brings us closer to or drives us farther away from Vishnunabi, resulting in the rising and falling ages here on Earth.
Yukteswar tells us that the calendars of the higher ages were based on the Yugas, with each era named after its Yuga. Hence, the year 3000 BC/BCE was known as descending Dwapara 102 (because the last descending Dwapara yuga began 102 years earlier in 3102 BC/BCE). He stated that this method was used up until the recent Dark Ages, when knowledge of the connection with the yugas and the precession cycle was lost; "The mistake crept into the almanacs for the first time during the reign of Raja Parikshit, just after the completion of the last descending Dwapara Yuga. At that time Maharaja Yudhisthira, noticing the appearance of the dark Kali Yuga, made over his throne to his grandson, the said Raja Parikshit. Maharaja Yudhisthira, together with all the wise men of his court, retired to the Himalaya Mountains... thus there was no one who could understand the principle of correctly calculating the ages of the several Yugas". Consequently, when the Dwapara was over and the Kali era began no one knew enough to restart the calendar count. They knew they were in a Kali Yuga (which is why the old Hindu calendar now begins with K.Y.) but the beginning of this calendar (which in 2006 stands at 5108) can still be traced to 3102 BC/BCE, (3102+2006=5108) the start of the last descending Dwapara Yuga. To this day there is still much confusion why the Kali starts at this date or what the correct length of the Yugas should be. Yukteswar suggests that a return to basing the Yuga calendar on the motion of the equinox would be a positive step.
History
The Hindu Calendar descends from the Vedic times. There are many references to calendrics in the
Vedas. The VedÄnga (adjunct to Veda) called Jyautisha (literally, "celestial body study") prescribed all the aspects of the Hindu calendars. After the Vedic period, there were many scholars such as
Ä€ryabhata (5th century CE),
VarÄhamihira (6th century) and BhÄskara (12th century) who were experts in Jyautisha and contributed to the development of the Hindu Calendar.
The most widely used authoritative text for the Hindu Calendars in the ''SÅ«rya SiddhÄnta'', a text of uncertain age, though some place it at 10th century.
The traditional Vedic calendar used to start with the month of agrahayan (agra=first + ayan = travel of the sun, equinox) or MÄrgashirsha. This is the month where the Sun crosses the equator, i.e. the
vernal equinox. This month was called mÄrgashirsha after the fifth nakshatra (around lambda orionis). Due to the
precession of the earth's axis, the vernal equinox is now in Pisces, and corresponds to the month of chaitra. This shift over the years is what has led to various calendar reforms in different regions to assert different months as the start month for the year. Thus, some calendars (e.g. Vikram) start with Chaitra, which is the present-day month of the vernal equinox, as the first month. Others may start with Vaisakha (e.g.
Bangabda). The shift in the vernal equinox by nearly four months from agrahaayana to chaitra in sidereal terms seems to indicate that the original naming conventions may date to the fourth or fifth millennium BCE, since the period of precession in the earth's axis is about 25,800 years.
Regional variants
The Indian Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952 (shortly after Indian independence), identified more than thirty well-developed calendars, all variants of the ''Surya Siddhanta'' calendar outlined here, in systematic use across different parts of India. These include the widespread ''Vikrama'' and ''Shalivahana'' calendars and regional variations thereof. The
Tamil calendar, a solar calendar, is used in
Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.
Vikrama and Shalivahana calendars
The two calendars most widely used in India today are the ''Vikrama'' calendar followed in
North India and
Nepal, and the
Shalivahana or ''Saka'' calendar which is followed in
South India and
Maharashtra.
Both the ''Vikrama'' and the ''Shalivahana'' eras are lunisolar calendars, and feature annual cycles of twelve lunar months, each month divided into two phases: the 'bright half' (''shukla'') and the 'dark half' (''bahula''); these correspond respectively to the periods of the 'waxing' and the 'waning' of the moon. Thus, the period beginning from the first day after the
new moon and ending on the
full moon day constitutes the ''shukla paksha'' or 'bright half' of the month; the period beginning from the day after the full moon until and including the next new moon day constitutes the ''bahula paksha'' or 'dark half' of the month.
The names of the 12 months, as also their sequence, are the same in both calendars; however, the new year is celebrated at separate points during the year and the "year zero" for the two calendars is different. In the Vikrama calendar, the zero year corresponds to 58 BCE, while in the Shalivahana calendar, it corresponds to 78 CE. The Vikrama calendar begins with the month of ''Kartika'' (Oct/Nov) and the
Deepavali festival marks the end of the year. The Shalivahana calendar begins with the month of ''Chaitra'' (March/April) and the
Ugadi/
Gudi Padwa festivals mark the new year.
Another little-known difference between the two calendars exists: while each month in the ''Shalivahana'' calendar begins with the 'bright half' and is followed by the 'dark half', the opposite obtains in the ''Vikrama'' calendar. Thus, each month of the ''Shalivahana'' calendar ends with the no-moon day and the new month begins on the day after that, while the full-moon day brings each month of the ''Vikrama'' calendar to a close.
National calendars in South and South East Asia
A variant of the ''Shalivahana'' Calendar was reformed and standardized as the Indian National calendar in 1957. This official calendar follows the ''Shalivahana'' calendar in beginning from the month of ''
Chaitra'' and counting years with 78 CE being
year zero. It features a constant number of days in every month (with leap years).
The Bengali Calendar, or
Bangla calendar (introduced 1584), is widely used in eastern India in the state of
West Bengal,
Tripura and
Assam. A reformation of this calendar was introduced in present-day
Bangladesh in 1966, with constant days in each month and a leap year system; this serves as the national calendar for
Bangladesh.
Nepal follows the
Bikram Sambat. Parallel months and roughly the same periods apply to a number of Hindu-influenced calendars in Burma, Cambodia, Laos,
Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Correspondence between calendars
As an indicator of this variation,
Whitaker's Almanac reports that the Gregorian year 2000 AD/CE corresponds, respectively with:
#Year 5101 in the Kaliyuga calendar;
#Year 2544 in the Buddha Nirvana calendar;
#Year 2057 in the
Bikram Samvat calendar;
#Year 1922 in the Saka calendar;
#Year 1921 (shown in terms of 5-yearly cycles) of the Vedanga Jyotisa calendar;
#Year 1407 in the
Bengali calendar;
#Year 1176 in the Kolla Varsham calendar.
References
1.
Discoverers, , Daniel, Boorstein, , ,
2.
Indian Calendric System, , S.K., Chatterjee, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1998,
3.
Indian Calendars: Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris Chia Daphne and Helmer Aslaksen
4.
The Wonder that was India, , A.L., Basham, Macmillan (Rupa and Co, Calcutta, reprint),, 1954, , Appendix II: Astronomy
Further reading
★ Reingold and Dershowitz, ''Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition'', Cambridge University Press, latest 2nd edition 3rd printing released November 2004. ISBN 0-521-77752-6
★ S. Balachandra Rao, ''Indian Astronomy: An Introduction'', Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000.
See also
★
Panchangam
★
Panjika
★
Perpetual Calendar of 800 Years
External links
★
Online Dymanic Tamil Calendar
★
Indian Calendar at Webexhibits.org
★
India through its calendars by Amartya Sen
★
Hindu Festival Calendar
★
Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris by Daphne Chia (pdf, 404KB)
★
Indian Calendars by Akhil Doegar and Akshay Prasad (pdf, 804KB)
★
Indian Calendars by Leow Choon Lian (pdf, 1.22MB)
★
Panchanga-Tantra: The Magic of the Indian Calendar System by Regulagedda Akshay (pdf, 1.97MB)
★
Panchanga / panchangam for your city / from www.mypanchang.com
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