The cathedral of
Notre Dame de Paris, a significant architectural contribution of the Middle Ages.
The 'High Middle Ages' was the
period of
European history in the
11th,
12th, and
13th centuries (AD 1000–1300). The High Middle Ages were preceded by the
Early Middle Ages and followed by the
Late Middle Ages, which by convention end around
1500.
The key historical trend of the High Middle Ages was the
rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, some scholars say, the continent became overpopulated, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the
19th century. This trend was checked in the Late Middle Ages by a series of calamities, notably the
Black Death but also including numerous wars and economic stagnation.
From about the year
1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The
Vikings had settled in the
British Isles,
France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their
Scandinavian homelands. The
Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a Christian
Kingdom of Hungary was recognized in central Europe. With the brief exception of the
Mongol incursions, major barbarian invasions ceased.
In the 11th century, populations north of the
Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the
Roman Empire. In what is known as the "great clearances," vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the
Frankish Empire to new frontiers in eastern Europe, beyond the
Elbe River, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded
European colonies in the
Levant,
Spain was conquered from the Moors, and the
Normans colonized southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern.
The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and
artistic works. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in
Western Europe and the ascent of the great Italian
city-states. The still-powerful
Roman Church called armies from across Europe to a series of
Crusades against the
Seljuk Turks, who occupied the
Holy Land. The rediscovery of the works of
Aristotle led
Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of
Scholasticism. In architecture, many of the most notable
Gothic cathedrals were built or completed during this era.
Historical events and politics
British Isles
:''Main articles:
Britain in the Middle Ages and
Scotland in the High Middle Ages
In
England, the
Norman Conquest of
1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by a
Francophone nobility. The Normans invaded Ireland in force in
1169 and soon established themselves throughout most of the country, though their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise,
Scotland and
Wales were subdued to vassalage at about the same time, though Scotland later regained her independence. The
Exchequer was founded in the 12th century under
King Henry I, and the first
parliaments were convened. In
1215, after the loss of
Normandy,
King John signed the
Magna Carta into law, which limited the power of
English monarchs.
Scandinavia
:''Main articles: Histories of
Denmark,
Norway, and
Sweden''
From the mid-tenth to the mid-eleventh centuries, the
Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end to
Viking raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King
Cnut of
Denmark ruled over both England and
Norway. After Cnut’s death in
1035, England and Norway were lost, and with the defeat of
Valdemar II in
1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its
Atlantic possessions, ranging from
Greenland to the
Isle of Man, while
Sweden, under
Birger jarl, built up a power base in the
Baltic Sea.
France and Germany
:''Main articles:
France in the Middle Ages,
Germany in the Middle Ages''
By the time of the High Middle Ages, the
Carolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called
France and
Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. Germany was under the banner of the
Holy Roman Empire, which reached its high-water mark of unity and political power.
Southern Europe
Map of Europe in 1092
:''Main articles:
Spain in the Middle Ages,
Italy in the Middle Ages''
Much of the
Iberian peninsula had been occupied by the
Moors after
711, although the northernmost portion was divided between several Christian states. In the 11th century, and again in the thirteenth, a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of
Castile drove the Muslims from central and most of southern Spain.
In Italy, independent city states grew affluent on eastern maritime trade. These were in particular the
thalassocracies of
Pisa,
Amalfi,
Genoa and
Venice.
Eastern Europe
The High Middle Ages saw the height and decline of the Slavic state of
Kievan Rus' and the
emergence of Poland. Later, the
Mongol invasion in the 13th century had great impact on
Eastern Europe, as many countries of that region were invaded, pillaged, conquered and vassalized.
During the first half of this period (c.1025-1185) the
Byzantine Empire dominated the Balkans south of the Danube, and under the
Comnenian emperors there was a revival of prosperity and urbanisation; however, the unity of the region came to an end with a successful
Bulgarian rebellion in
1185, and henceforth the region was divided between the Byzantines in
Greece,
Macedonia and
Thrace, and the
Serbians and
Bulgarians to the north. The Eastern and Western churches had formally split in the
11th century, and despite occasional periods of co-operation during the twelfth century, in 1204 the
Fourth Crusade used treachery to capture
Constantinople. This severely damaged the Byzantines, and their power was ultimately usurped by the
Ottoman Empire in the 15th century.
Climate and agriculture
A farmer using oxen to plow a field
The
Medieval Warm Period, the period from 10th century to about the
14th century in
Europe, was a relatively warm and gentle interval ended by the generally colder
Little Ice Age. Farmers grew
wheat well north into
Scandinavia, and
wine grapes in northern
England, although the maximum expansion of vineyards appears to occur within the Little Ice Age period. This protection from
famine allowed Europe's population to increase, despite the famine in
1315 that killed 1.5 million people. This increased population contributed to the founding of new towns and an increase in industrial and economic activity during the period. Food production also increased during this time as new ways of farming were introduced, including the use of a heavier plow, horses instead of oxen, and a three-field system that allowed the cultivation of a greater variety of crops than the earlier two-field system - notably legumes, the growth of which prevented the depletion of important nitrogen from the soil.
The rise of chivalry
Household heavy cavalry (
knights) became common in the 11th century across Europe, and
tournaments were invented. Although the heavy capital investment in horse and armor was a barrier to entry, knighthood became known as a way for serfs to earn their freedom. In the 12th century, the
Cluny monks promoted ethical warfare and inspired the formation of
orders of chivalry, such as the
Templar Knights. Inherited titles of nobility were established during this period. In 13th-century Germany, knighthood became another
inheritable title, although one of the less prestigious, and the trend spread to other countries.
Religion
The Church
The
East-West Schism of
1054 formally separated the Christian church into two parts:
Western Catholicism in Western Europe and
Eastern Orthodoxy in the east. It occurred when
Pope Leo IX and
Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other, mainly over disputes as to the existence of papal authority over the four Eastern
patriarchs.
The Crusades
:''Main article:
Crusade''
One of the most important events of the period was the series of religious wars known as the Crusades, in which
Christians fought to retake
Palestine from the
Seljuk Turks. The Crusades impacted all levels of society in the High Middle Ages, from the kings and emperors who themselves led the Crusades, to the lowest peasants whose lords were often absent in the east. The height of the Crusades was the 12th century, following the First Crusade and the foundation of the
Crusader states; in the 13th century and beyond, Crusades were also directed against fellow Christians, and in eastern and northern Europe, non-Muslim pagans. Expanded contact with the east, especially among the city-states of Italy, would eventually help spark the Italian
Renaissance, which then spread throughout the whole of western
Christendom.
Military orders
In the context of the crusades, monastic
military orders were founded that would become the template for the late medieval
chivalric orders.
The
Knights Templar were a Christian military order founded after the
First Crusade to help protect Christian pilgrims from hostile Muslims. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in
1307 Philip the Fair (Philippe le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and was dismantled on charges of heresy. They were secretly pardoned by
Pope Clement V in
1314.
Scholasticism
:''Main article:
Scholasticism''
The new
Christian method of learning was influenced by
Anselm of Canterbury (
1033-
1109) from the rediscovery of the works of
Aristotle through Medieval Jewish and Muslim Philosophy (
Maimonides,
Avicenna, and
Averroes) and those whom he influenced, most notably
Albertus Magnus,
Bonaventure and
Abélard. Scholastics believed in
empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. They opposed
Christian mysticism, and the Platonist-Augustinian beliefs in
mind dualism and the view of the world as inherently evil. The most famous of the scholastics was
Thomas Aquinas (later declared a "
Doctor of the Church"), who led the move away from the
Platonic and
Augustinian and towards Aristotelianism. Aquinas developed a
philosophy of mind by writing that the
mind was at birth a ''
tabula rasa'' ("blank slate") that was given the ability to think and recognize forms or ideas through a divine spark. Other notable scholastics included
Roscelin, Abélard, and
Peter Lombard. One of the main questions during this time was the problem of the universals. Prominent anti-scholastics included as
Duns Scotus,
William of Ockham,
Anselm of Canterbury,
Peter Damian,
Bernard of Clairvaux, and the
Victorines.
Golden age of monasticism
★ The late 11th century/early-mid 12th century was the height of the golden age of
Christian monasticism (8th-12th centuries).
★
★
Benedictine Order - black robed monks
★
★
Cistercian Order - white robed monks
★
★
★
Bernard of Clairvaux
Mendicant orders
★ The 13th century saw the rise of the
Mendicant orders such as the:
★
★
Franciscans (Friars Minor, commonly known as the Grey Friars), founded 1209
★
★
Carmelites, (Hermits of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Carmel, commonly known as the White Friars), founded 1206–1214
★
★
Dominicans (Order of Preachers, commonly called the Black Friars), founded 1215
★
★
Augustinians (Hermits of St. Augustine, commonly called the austin Friars), founded 1256
Heretical movements
Heresy existed in Europe before the 11th century but only in small numbers and of local character: a rogue priest, or a village returning to pagan traditions; but beginning in the 11th century mass-movement heresies appeared. The roots of this can be found with the rise of urban cities, free merchants and a new money-based economy. The rural values of monasticism held little appeal to urban people who began to form sects more in tune with urban culture. The first heretical movements originated in the newly urbanized areas such as southern France and northern Italy. They were mass movements on a scale the Church had never seen before, and the response was one of elimination for some, such as the Cathars, and the acceptance and integration of others, such as St. Francis, the son of an urban merchant who renounced money.
Cathars
:''Main article:
Cathars''
'Catharism' was a movement with
Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the
10th century, branded by the contemporary
Roman Catholic Church as
heretical. It existed throughout much of
Western Europe, but its home was in
Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern
France.
The name ''Cathar'' most likely originated from
Greek ''katharos'', "pure". One of the first recorded uses is
Eckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra germania catharos appellat."
The Cathars are also called 'Albigensians'. This name originates from the end of the
12th century, and was used by the chronicler
Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in
1181. The name refers to the southern town of
Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at
Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts.
The
Albigensians were strong in southern France, northern Italy, and the southwestern
Holy Roman Empire.
★
Dualists believed that historical events were the result of struggle between a good force and an evil force and that evil ruled the world, but could be controlled or defeated through
asceticism and good works.
★
Albigensian Crusade,
Simon de Montfort,
Montségur,
Quéribus
Waldensians
Peter Waldo of
Lyon was a wealthy merchant who gave up his wealth around
1175 after a religious experience and became a preacher. He founded the
Waldensians which became a Christian sect believing that all religious practices should have scriptural basis. Waldo was denied the right to preach his sermons by the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which he did not obey and continued to speak freely until he was excommunicated in 1184. Waldo was critical of the Christian clergy saying they did not live according to the word. He rejected the practice of selling indulgences, as well as the common saint cult practices of the day.
Trade and commerce
In Northern Europe, the
Hanseatic League was founded in the 12th century, with the foundation of the city of
Lübeck in
1158–
1159. Many northern cities of the Holy Roman Empire became hanseatic cities, including
Amsterdam,
Cologne,
Bremen,
Hannover and
Berlin. Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance,
Bruges and the Polish city of
Gdańsk(Danzig). In
Bergen, Norway and
Novgorod, Russia the league had factories and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonising Eastern Europe beyond the Empire, into
Prussia and
Silesia.
In the late 13th century, a
Venetian explorer named
Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the
Silk Road to
China. Westerners became more aware of the Far East when Polo documented his travels in ''
Il Milione''. He was followed by numerous Christian missionnaries to the East, such as
William of Rubruck,
Giovanni da Pian del Carpini,
Andrew of Longjumeau,
Odoric of Pordenone,
Giovanni de Marignolli,
Giovanni di Monte Corvino, and other travellers such as
Niccolò da Conti.
Science
::
Main articles: History of science in the Middle Ages
Philosophical and scientific teaching of the
Early Middle Ages was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe after the collapse of the
Western Roman Empire. Much of Europe had lost contact with the knowledge of the past.
This scenario changed during the
Renaissance of the 12th century. The intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of
medieval universities. The increased contact with the Islamic world in
Spain and
Sicily, and during the
Reconquista and the
Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific
Arabic and
Greek texts, including the works of
Aristotle,
Alhazen, and
Averroes. The European universities aided materially in the
translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities.
Detail of a portrait of Hugh de Provence, painted by Tomasso da Modena in 1352
At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors,
[1] allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural science contained in these texts began to be extended by notable
scholastics such as
Robert Grosseteste,
Roger Bacon,
Albertus Magnus and
Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern
scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his ''
Opus Majus''.
Technology
:
Main articles: Medieval technology,
artes mechanicae
During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than a century there were more inventions developed and applied usefully than in the previous thousand years of human history all over the globe. The period saw major
technological advances, including the adoption or invention of
windmills,
watermills,
printing,
gunpowder, the
astrolabe,
spectacles, a better
clock, and greatly improved
ships. The latter two advances made possible the dawn of the
Age of Exploration.
Alfred Crosby described some of this technological revolution in ''The Measure of Reality : Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600'' and other major historians of technology have also noted it.
★ The earliest written record of a
windmill is from
Yorkshire,
England, dated
1185.
★
Paper manufacture began in
Italy around
1270.
★ The
spinning wheel was brought to
Europe (probably from
India) in the 13th century.
★ The
magnetic compass aided navigation, first reaching Europe some time in the late 12th century.
★
Eyeglasses were invented in
Italy in the late
1280s.
★ The
astrolabe returned to Europe via Islamic Spain.
★
Leonardo of Pisa introduces
Arabic numerals to Europe with his book
Liber Abaci in
1202.
★ The West's oldest known depiction of a stern-mounted
rudder can be found on church carvings dating to around
1180.
Arts
Visual arts
:''Main article:
Medieval art''
Art in the High Middle Ages includes these major periods or movements:
★
Romanesque art - traditions from the Classical world (not to be confused with
Romanesque architecture)
★
Gothic art - Germanic traditions (not to be confused with
Gothic architecture).
★
Byzantine art - Byzantine traditions.
★
Christian art
Other areas of study include regional surveys (
Anglo-Saxon art and
Jewish art for example) or areas of speciality such as
Illuminated manuscripts.
Architecture
:''Main article:
Gothic architecture''
Gothic architecture superseded the
Romanesque style by combining
flying buttresses, gothic (or pointed)
arches and
ribbed vaults. It was influenced by the spiritual background of the time, being religious in essence: thin horizontal lines and grates made the building strive towards the sky. Architecture was made to appear light and weightless, as opposed to the dark and bulky forms of the previous
Romanesque style.
Saint Augustine of Hippo taught that light was an expression of God. Architectural techniques were adapted and developed to build churches that reflected this teaching. Colorful
glass windows enhanced the spirit of lightness. As color was much rarer at medieval times than today, it can be assumed that these virtuoso works of art had an awe-inspiring impact on the common man from the street. High-rising intricate ribbed, and later
fan vaultings demonstrated movement toward heaven. Veneration of God was also expressed by the relatively large size of these buildings. A gothic cathedral therefore not only invited the visitors to elevate themselves spiritually, it was also meant to demonstrate the greatness of God. The
floor plan of a gothic cathedral corresponded to the rules of scholasticism: the plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections. These characteristics are exhibited by the most famous sacral building of the time:
Notre Dame de Paris.
Literature
:''Main article:
Medieval literature''
A variety of cultures influenced the literature of the High Middle Ages, one of the strongest among them being Christianity. The connection to Christianity was greatest in
Latin literature, which influenced the
vernacular languages in the
literary cycle of the
Matter of Rome. Other literary cycles, or interrelated groups of stories, included the
Matter of France (stories about
Charlemagne and his court), the
Acritic songs dealing with the chivalry of
Byzantium's frontiersmen, and perhaps the best known cycle, the
Matter of Britain, which featured tales about
King Arthur, his court, and related stories from
Brittany,
Cornwall,
Wales and
Ireland. There was also a quantity of poetry and historical writings which were written during this period, such as ''
Historia Regum Britanniae'' by
Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Southern France gave birth to
Provençal literature, which is best known for
troubadours who sang of
courtly love. It included elements from Latin literature and Arab-influenced
Spain and
North Africa. Later its influence spread to several cultures in Western Europe, Portugal, the Minnesänger in Germany, Sicily and Northern Italy, giving birth to the Italian Dolce Stil Nuovo of Petrarca and Dante, who wrote the most important poem of the time, the ''
Divine Comedy''.
Music
:''Main article:
Medieval music''
The surviving music of the High Middle Ages is primarily religious in nature, since
music notation developed in religious institutions, and the application of notation to secular music was a later development. Early in the period,
Gregorian chant was the dominant form of church music; other forms, beginning with
organum, and later including
clausulae,
conductus and the
motet, developed using the chant as source material.
During the eleventh century,
Guido of Arezzo was one of the first to develop musical notation, which made it easier for singers to remember Gregorian chants.
It was during the 12th and 13th centuries that Gregorian plainchant gave birth to polyphony, which appeared in the works of French
Notre Dame School (
Léonin and
Pérotin). Later it evolved into the ''
ars nova'' (
Philippe de Vitry,
Guillaume de Machaut) and the musical genres of late Middle Ages. An important composer during the 12th century was the
nun Hildegard of Bingen.
The most significant secular movement was that of the
troubadours, who arose in the south of
France in the late
11th century. The troubadours were often itinerant, came from all classes of society, and wrote songs on a variety of topics, especially
courtly love. Their style went on to influence the
trouvères of northern France, the
minnesingers of
Germany, and the composers of secular
music of the Trecento in northern Italy.
Timeline
★ 962 —
Otto I crowned
Holy Roman Emperor
★ 1003 — death of
Pope Sylvester II
★ 1027 — the Salian
Conrad II succeeds the last Ottonian
Henry II the Saint
★ 1054 —
East-West Schism
★ 1066 —
Battle of Hastings
★ 1073-1085 —
Pope Gregory VII
★ 1071 —
Battle of Manzikert
★ 1077 —
Henry IV's
Walk to Canossa
★ 1086 —
Domesday Book
★ 1096-1099 —
First Crusade
★ 1123 —
First Lateran Council
★ 1139 —
Second Lateran Council
★ 1145-1149 —
Second Crusade
★ 1155-1190 —
Frederick I Barbarossa
★ 1158 — foundation of the
Hanseatic League
★ 1189-1192 —
Third Crusade
★ 1200–1204 —
Fourth Crusade
★ 1209-1229 —
Albigensian Crusade
★ 1215 —
Magna Carta
★ 1216 — recognition of the
Dominican Order
★ 1215 —
Fourth Lateran Council
★ 1217–1221 —
Fifth Crusade
★ 1220-1250 —
Frederick II
★ 1223 — foundation of the
Franciscan Order
★ 1228–1229 —
Sixth Crusade
★ 1248–1254 —
Seventh Crusade
★ 1257 — foundation of the
Collège de Sorbonne
★ 1274 — death of
Thomas Aquinas; ''
Summa Theologiae'' published
★ 1280 — death of
Albertus Magnus
★ 1291 —
Acre, the last European outpost in the
Middle East, is captured by the
Mamluks under
Khalil.
★ 1321 — death of
Dante Alighieri
References
# John H. Mundy, ''Europe in the High Middle Ages, 1150-1309'' Harlow, England, Longman (2000) ISBN 0-582-36987-8
#
Music of the Middle Ages: 475-1500
#
Middle Ages: The High Middle Ages on Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia at infoplease
#
Provençal literature on Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia at infoplease
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