:''Not to be confused with
Heroine (female hero).''
'Heroin' (
INN: 'diacetylmorphine',
BAN: 'diamorphine') is an
opiate processed directly from the extracts of the
opium poppy, ''Papaver somniferum'', originally intended to break
morphine addictions. It is the 3,6-
diacetyl derivative of
morphine (hence ''diacetylmorphine'') and is processed by
acetylation. The white crystalline form is commonly the hydrochloride salt 'diacetylmorphine hydrochloride'. Upon crossing the
blood-brain barrier, which occurs soon after introduction of the drug into the bloodstream, heroin is converted into morphine, which mimics the action of
endorphins, creating a sense of well-being; the characteristic euphoria has been described as an "orgasm" centered in the gut. One of the most common methods of heroin use is via
intravenous injection.
Due to heroin's mimicry of endorphins, it is used both as a
pain-killer and a
recreational drug. Frequent administration has a high potential for causing
addiction and may quickly lead to tolerance; however, occasional use does not lead to symptoms of withdrawal. If a continuous, sustained use of heroin for as little as three days is stopped abruptly, withdrawal symptoms can appear. This is much shorter than other common painkillers such as
oxycodone and
hydrocodone.
[1][2]
Internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.
[3] It is illegal to manufacture, possess, or sell heroin in the
United States and the UK. However, under the name 'diamorphine', heroin is a legal prescription drug in the
United Kingdom. Popular street names for heroin are ''gear'', ''diesel'', ''smack'', ''B'', ''boy'', ''skag'', ''Harry'', ''Bobby'', ''
black tar'', ''horse'', ''honk'', ''munge'', ''junk'', ''brok'', ''jack'', ''jenny'', ''blow'', ''brown'', ''brown sugar'', ''brownstone'', ''dark'', ''sweaty'', ''dope'', ''pof'', ''sam'', ''waccocco'', ''lovage'', ''dragon'', ''bitch'', ''skurge'', ''ron'', ''ice cube'', ''jim'', ''moop'', ''sweet lady H'' and ''H''.
History
Old advertisement for
Bayer Heroin.
Bayer Heroin bottle.
The
opium poppy was cultivated in lower
Mesopotamia as long ago as 3400 BC.
[4] The chemical analysis of opium in the 19th century revealed that most of its activity could be ascribed to two ingredients,
codeine and
morphine.
Heroin was first
synthesized in 1874 by
C.R. Alder Wright, an English chemist working at
St. Mary's Hospital Medical School in London, England. He had been experimenting with combining morphine with various acids. He boiled anhydrous morphine alkaloid with acetic anhydride over a stove for several hours and produced a more potent, acetylated form of morphine, now called ''diacetylmorphine''. The compound was sent to F.M. Pierce of Owens College in Manchester for analysis, who reported the following to Wright:
:''Doses ... were
subcutaneously injected into young dogs and rabbits ... with the following general results ... great prostration, fear, and sleepiness speedily following the administration, the eyes being sensitive, and pupils constrict, considerable
salivation being produced in dogs, and slight tendency to
vomiting in some cases, but no actual emesis.
Respiration was at first quickened, but subsequently reduced, and the heart's action was diminished, and rendered irregular. Marked want of coordinating power over the muscular movements, and loss of power in the pelvis and hind limbs, together with a diminution of temperature in the rectum of about 4° (rectal failure)''.
[5]
Wright's invention, however, did not lead to any further developments, and heroin only became popular after it was independently re-synthesized 23 years later by another chemist,
Felix Hoffmann. Hoffmann, working at the
Bayer pharmaceutical company in
Elberfeld, Germany, was instructed by his supervisor Heinrich Dreser to acetylate morphine with the objective of producing
codeine, a natural derivative of the opium poppy, similar to morphine but less potent and less addictive. But instead of producing codeine, the experiment produced a substance that was actually 1.5-2 times more potent than morphine itself. Bayer would name the substance "heroin", probably from the word ''heroisch'', German for heroic, because in field studies people using the medicine felt "heroic".
[6]
From 1898 through to 1910 heroin was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. Bayer marketed heroin as a cure for morphine addiction before it was discovered that heroin is converted to morphine when metabolized in the liver. The company was somewhat embarrassed by this new finding and it became a historical blunder for Bayer.
[7]
As with aspirin, Bayer lost some of its trademark rights to heroin following the German defeat in
World War I.
[8]
In the United States the
Harrison Narcotics Tax Act was passed in 1914 to control the sale and distribution of heroin. The law did allow heroin to be prescribed and sold for medical purposes. In particular, recreational users could often still be legally supplied with heroin. In 1924, the United States Congress passed additional legislation banning the sale, importation or manufacture of heroin in the United States. It is now a Schedule I substance, and is thus illegal there.
Usage and effects
Heroin is used as a recreational drug for its intense
euphoria, which often disappears with increased
tolerance. It is believed that heroin's popularity with recreational users, compared to morphine or other opiates, comes from its somewhat different perceived effects.
[9] This belief has not been supported by clinical research. In studies comparing the physiological and subjective effects of heroin and morphine administered intravenously in post-addicts, subjects showed no preference for one or the other of these drugs when administered on a single injection basis. Equipotent intravenous doses had comparable action courses. There was no difference found in their ability to produce feelings of "euphoria," ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, or sleepiness.
[10] Data acquired during short-term addiction studies did not support the statement that tolerance develops more rapidly to heroin than to morphine. These findings have been discussed in relation to the physicochemical properties of heroin and morphine and the metabolism of heroin. When compared to other opioids --
hydromorphone,
fentanyl,
oxycodone, and
meperidine, post-addicts showed a strong preference to heroin and morphine over the others, suggesting that heroin and morphine are more liable to abuse and addiction. Morphine and heroin were also much more likely to produce feelings of "euphoria", and other subjective effects when compared to most other
opioid analgesics.
[11][12] Heroin can be
administered in a number of ways, including
snorting and
injection. It may also be smoked by inhaling the vapors produced when heated (known as "
chasing the dragon").
Some users mix heroin with
cocaine in a so-called "speedball" or "snowball", which is usually injected intravenously although it can be smoked or dissolved in water and snorted. This causes a more intense rush than heroin alone but is more dangerous because the combination of the short-acting stimulant with the longer-acting depressant increases the risk of overdosing on one or both drugs.
Once in the brain, heroin is rapidly
metabolized into morphine by removal of the acetyl groups, therefore, it is known as a
prodrug. It is the morphine
molecule that then binds with opioid receptors and produces the subjective effects of the heroin high.
The onset of heroin's effects is dependent on the method of administration. Taken orally, heroin is totally metabolized
in vivo into morphine before crossing the blood-brain barrier; so the effects are the same as oral morphine. Snorting heroin results in an onset within 10 to 15 minutes. Smoking heroin results in an almost immediate, though mild effect which strengthens the longer it is used. Intravenous injection results in rush and euphoria within 7 to 8 seconds; while intramuscular or subcutaneous injection takes longer, having an effect within 5 to 8 minutes.
Heroin is a μ-opioid (
mu-opioid)
agonist. It acts on
endogenous μ-opioid receptors that are spread in discrete packets throughout the
brain,
spinal cord and
gut in almost all
mammals. Heroin, along with other
opioids, are
agonists to four endogenous
neurotransmitters. They are
β-endorphin,
dynorphin,
leu-enkephalin, and
met-enkephalin. The body responds to heroin in the brain by reducing (and sometimes stopping) production of the endogenous opioids when heroin is present. Endorphins are regularly released in the brain and nerves, attenuating pain. Their other functions are still obscure, but are probably related to the effects produced by heroin besides analgesia (
antitussin,
anti-diarrheal). The reduced endorphin production in heroin users creates a dependence on the heroin, and the cessation of heroin results in extremely uncomfortable symptoms including pain (even in the absence of physical trauma). This set of symptoms is called
withdrawal syndrome. It has an onset 6 to 8 hours after the last dose of heroin.
Large doses of heroin can be fatal. The drug can be used for suicide or, as in the case of
Sigmund Freud, physician-assisted suicide. Heroin can also be used as a murder weapon. The serial killer Dr.
Harold Shipman used it on his victims as did Dr.
John Bodkin Adams (
see his victim, Edith Alice Morrell). Dealers can also supply unwanted customers with unusually pure heroin, or heroin cut with other dangerous drugs such as fentanyl, resulting in a fatal overdose. It can sometimes be difficult to determine whether a heroin death was an accident, suicide or murder. The death of
Joseph Krecker was such a case.
[13]
Regulation
In Canada heroin is a controlled substance under Schedule I of the
Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA). Every person who seeks or obtains heroin without disclosing authorization 30 days prior to obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years. Possession for purpose of trafficking is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for life.
In Hong Kong, heroin is regulated under Schedule 1 of
Hong Kong's Chapter 134 ''Dangerous Drugs Ordinance''. It can only be used legally by health professionals and for university research purposes. It can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies heroin without prescription can be fined $10000(HKD). The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing heroin is a $5,000,000 (
HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of heroin for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 (HKD) fine and/or 7 years of jail time.
In the
United Kingdom, heroin is available by prescription, though it is a restricted
Class A drug. According to the
British National Formulary (BNF) edition 50, diamorphine
hydrochloride may be used in the treatment of acute pain,
myocardial infarction, acute
pulmonary oedema, and
chronic pain. The treatment of chronic non-
malignant pain must be supervised by a specialist. The BNF notes that all opioid analgesics cause dependence and tolerance but that this is "no deterrent in the control of pain in terminal illness". When used in the
palliative care of cancer patients, heroin is often injected using a
syringe driver.
In
Australia heroin is not available for therapeutic purposes.
Production and trafficking
Primary worldwide producers of heroin.
Manufacturing
Heroin is produced for the black market through processes of opium refinement. While the production of drugs like
LSD requires considerable expertise in
chemistry and access to constituents which are now tightly controlled, the refinement of the first three grades of heroin from opium is a relatively simple process requiring only moderate technical expertise and common chemicals. The final grade of heroin favoured in the
West is more difficult to produce and involves a potentially dangerous chemical procedure.
First, morphine is isolated from crude opium by being dissolved in water, reacted with
lime fertilizer such that the morphine precipitates out, and then reacted again with
ammonia. What remains is then mechanically filtered to yield a final product of morphine weighing about 90% less than the original quantity of opium. The morphine is reacted with
acetic anhydride — a chemical also used in the production of aspirin — in a five-step process used by most refineries in the
Golden Triangle. The first step is to cook the morphine at 85 °C (185 °F) for six hours with an equivalent weight of acetic anhydride. In the second, a treatment of water and hydrochloric acid then purifies the product moderately. When the chemists add
sodium carbonate, the particulates settle. Step four involves heating the heroin in a mixture of
alcohol and
activated charcoal until the alcohol evaporates. The fifth step is optional, as it only changes the heroin into a finer white powder, more easily injectable; this so-called "no. 4 heroin" is principally exported to the Western markets. In this last, most dangerous step, the heroin (after being dissolved in alcohol), precipitates out in tiny white flakes when a mixture of
ether and
hydrochloric acid is injected; this step is dangerous because the ether may explode, leveling or severely damaging the refinery (as has happened to a number of such facilities).
The purity of the extracted morphine determines in large part the quality of the resulting heroin.
Heroin is also rarely made from
codeine by first demethylating with
pyridine followed by acetylation with acetic anhydride. The resulting product is an impure mixture of heroin and
monoacetylmorphine known as
Home Bake.
History of heroin traffic
The origins of the present international illegal heroin trade can be traced back to laws passed in many countries in the early 1900s that closely regulated the production and sale of opium and its derivatives including heroin. At first, heroin flowed from countries where it was still legal into countries where it was no longer legal. By the mid-1920s, heroin production had been made illegal in many parts of the world. An illegal trade developed at that time between heroin labs in China (mostly in Shanghai and Tianjin) and other nations. The weakness of government in China and conditions of civil war enabled heroin production to take root there. Chinese
triad gangs eventually came to play a major role in the heroin trade.
Heroin trafficking was virtually eliminated in the U.S. during
World War II due to temporary trade disruptions caused by the war. Japan's war with China had cut the normal distribution routes for heroin and the war had generally disrupted the movement of opium. After the second world war, the Mafia took advantage of the weakness of the postwar Italian government and set up heroin labs in Sicily. The Mafia took advantage of Sicily's location along the historic route opium took from Iran westward into Europe and the United States. Large scale international heroin production effectively ended in China with the victory of the communists in the civil war in the late 1940s. The elimination of Chinese production happened at the same time that Sicily's role in the trade developed.
Although it remained legal in some countries until after World War II, health risks, addiction, and widespread abuse led most western countries to declare heroin a controlled substance by the latter half of the 20th century.
Between the end of World War II and the 1970s, much of the opium consumed in the west was grown in
Iran, but in the late 1960s, under pressure from the U.S. and the
United Nations, Iran engaged in anti-opium policies. While opium production never ended in Iran, the decline in production in those countries led to the development of a major new cultivation base in the so-called "
Golden Triangle" region in South East Asia. In 1970-71, high-grade heroin laboratories opened in the Golden Triangle. This changed the dynamics of the heroin trade by expanding and decentralizing the trade. Opium production also increased in Afghanistan due to the efforts of Turkey and Iran to reduce production in their respective countries. Lebanon, a traditional opium supplier, also increased its role in the trade during years of civil war.
Soviet-Afghan war led to increased production in the Pakistani-Afghani border regions. It increased international production of heroin at lower prices in the 1980s. The trade shifted away from Sicily in the late 1970s as various criminal organizations violently fought with each other over the trade. The fighting also led to a stepped up government law enforcement presence in Sicily. All of this combined to greatly diminish the role of the country in the international heroin trade.
Dr. Alfred W. McCoy's account of the history of the heroin trade
Although it was beginning to become more prevalent by the 1930s, Asian historian and drug traffic expert Dr. Alfred W. McCoy reports that heroin trafficking was virtually eliminated in the U.S. during World War II due to temporary trade disruptions caused by the war. McCoy contends the Mafia was able to gain control of the heroin trade thanks in large measure due to the
unintended consequences of a covert deal between top Mafia leader
Lucky Luciano and American military intelligence. The deal resulted in a large increase in Mafia influence in Sicily after the 1943 American invasion.
In southeast Asia, the governments of most countries and many colonial officials had been involved in the opium trade for a very long time. Thanks to
Corsican Mafia connections in the former French colony of Vietnam, Luciano was able to begin to develop South-east Asia as a new source of Opium. The
Vietnam War and
CIA operations in Laos had the unintended consequence of first opening up many areas of South-east Asia to modern transportation and then presenting a ready-made market for the drug among the U.S. military personnel stationed in the region.
The major turning point came in 1970-71 when the first high-grade heroin laboratories opened in the Golden Triangle. Prior to this, the chemical skills for refinement had existed only in Europe. This gave the opium producers control over the creation of the final product. The hundreds of thousands of American servicemen in Vietnam provided a perfect market for the heroin producers, and heroin use among soldiers rapidly increased. In 1971 the first large consignments of South East Asian heroin were intercepted in Europe and America, and by the mid-1970s heroin addiction fulfilled its promise as a serious social problem in the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and many other nations.
Trafficking
:''See also:
Opium production''
Traffic is heavy worldwide, with the biggest producer being Afghanistan.
[14] According to U.N. sponsored survey,
[15] as of 2004, Afghanistan accounted for production of 87 percent of the world's heroin.
[16] Opium production in that country has increased rapidly since, reaching an all-time high in 2006. War once again appeared as a facilitator of the trade.
[17]
At present, opium poppies are mostly grown in
Afghanistan, and in
Southeast Asia, especially in the region known as the Golden Triangle straddling
Myanmar,
Thailand,
Vietnam,
Laos and
Yunnan province in the
People's Republic of China. There is also cultivation of opium poppies in the
Sinaloa region of
Mexico and in
Colombia. The majority of the heroin consumed in the United States comes from Mexico and Colombia. Up until 2004, Pakistan was considered one of the biggest opium-growing countries. However, the efforts of Pakistan's
Anti-Narcotics Force have since reduced the opium growing area by 59%
as of 2001. Some suggest that the decline in Pakistani production is inversely proportional to the rise of Afghani production, and that rather than anti-narcotics activity, the decline in Pakistan is due more to changed market forces.
Conviction for trafficking in heroin carries the death penalty in most
South-east Asia and some
East Asia and
Middle Eastern countries (see
Use of death penalty worldwide for details), among which
Malaysia,
Singapore and
Thailand are the most strict. The penalty applies even to citizens of countries where the penalty is not in place, sometimes causing controversy when foreign visitors are arrested for trafficking, for example the arrest of
nine Australians in Bali or the hanging of
Australian citizen
Van Tuong Nguyen in Singapore, both in 2005.
Sandra Gregory has written an autobiography covering her experience of getting caught with Heroin at a Thai airport.
Risks of non-medical use
Heroin being cooked in an aluminum can
★ For
intravenous users of heroin (and any other substance), the use of non-sterile needles and syringes and other related equipment leads to the risk of contracting blood-borne
pathogens such as
HIV and
hepatitis, as well as the risk of contracting bacterial or fungal
endocarditis and possibly venous sclerosis.
★ Poisoning from
contaminants added to "
cut" or dilute heroin
★ Chronic
constipation
★
Addiction and constantly growing tolerance. Like all opiates and opioids, long term use can lead to physical addiction.
★ Decreased kidney function. (although it is not currently known if this is due to adulterants used in the cut)
[18][19][20][21][22]
Many countries and local governments have begun funding programs that supply
sterile needles to people who inject illegal drugs in an attempt to reduce these contingent risks and especially the contraction and spread of blood-borne diseases. The Drug Policy Alliance reports that up to 75% of new AIDS cases among women and children are directly or indirectly a consequence of drug use by injection. But despite the immediate
public health benefit of
needle exchanges, some see such programs as tacit acceptance of illicit drug use. The United States federal government does not operate needle exchanges, although some state and local governments do support needle exchange programs. Needle exchanges have been instrumental in arresting the spread of HIV/AIDS in many communities with a significant heroin using population, Australia being a leader due to its early inception of needle exchanges. Needle exchange programs have also been attributed to saving the public significant amounts of tax money by preventing medical costs which would have been required otherwise for the treatment of diseases spread through the practice of sharing and reusing needles.
A heroin
overdose is usually treated with an opioid
antagonist, such as
naloxone (
Narcan), which has a high affinity for
opioid receptors but does not activate them. This blocks heroin and other opioid antagonists and causes an immediate return of consciousness and the beginning of
withdrawal symptoms when administered intravenously. The
half-life of this antagonist is usually much shorter than that of the opiate drugs it is used to block, so the antagonist usually has to be re-administered multiple times until the opiate has been metabolized by the body.
Depending on drug interactions and numerous other factors, death from overdose can take anywhere from several minutes to several hours due to anoxia because the breathing reflex is suppressed by µ-opioids. An overdose is immediately reversible with an
opioid antagonist injection. Heroin overdoses can occur due to an unexpected increase in the dose or purity or due to diminished opiate tolerance. However, most fatalities reported as overdoses are probably caused by interactions with other
depressant drugs like alcohol or
benzodiazepines.
[23]
The
LD50 for a physically addicted person is prohibitively high, to the point that there is no general medical consensus on where to place it. Several studies done in the 1920s gave users doses of 1,600–1,800 mg of heroin in one sitting, and no adverse effects were reported. This is approximately 16–18 times a normal recreational dose. Even for a non-user, the LD
50 can be placed above 350 mg though some sources give a figure of between 75 and 375 mg for a 75 kg person.
[24]
Street heroin is of widely varying and unpredictable purity. This means that the user may prepare what they consider to be a moderate dose while actually taking far more than intended. Also, those who use the drug after a period of abstinence have tolerances below what they were during active addiction. If a dose comparable to their previous use is taken, an effect greater to what the user intended is caused, in extreme cases an overdose could result.
It has been speculated that an unknown portion of heroin related deaths are the result of an overdose or allergic reaction to
quinine, which may sometimes be used as a cutting agent.
[3]
A final source of overdose in users comes from
place conditioning. Heroin use, like other drug using behaviors, is highly ritualized. While the mechanism has yet to be clearly elucidated, it has been shown that longtime heroin users, immediately before injecting in a common area for heroin use, show an acute increase in metabolism and a surge in the concentration of
opiate-metabolizing
enzymes. This acute increase, a reaction to a location where the user has repeatedly injected heroin, imbues him or her with a strong (but temporary)
tolerance to the toxic effects of the drug. When the user injects in a different location, this place-conditioned tolerance does not occur, giving the user a much lower-than-expected ability to metabolize the drug. The user's typical dose of the drug, in the face of decreased tolerance, becomes far too high and can be toxic, leading to overdose.
[4]
A small percentage of heroin smokers may develop symptoms of
toxic leukoencephalopathy. This is believed to be caused by an uncommon
adulterant that is only active when heated. Symptoms include slurred speech and difficulty walking.
Harm reduction approaches to heroin
Proponents of the
harm reduction philosophy seek to minimize the harms that arise from the recreational use of heroin. Safer means of taking the drug, such as smoking or nasal, oral and rectal insertion, are encouraged, due to the higher risks of overdose, infections and blood-borne viruses associated with
drug injection.
Where the strength of the drug is unknown, users are encouraged to try a small amount first to gauge the strength, to minimize the risks of overdose. For the same reason, poly drug use (the use of two or more drugs at the same time) is discouraged. Users are also encouraged to not use heroin on their own, as others can assist in the event of an overdose.
Heroin users who choose to inject should always use new needles, syringes, spoons/steri-cups and filters every time they inject and not share these with other users. Governments that support a harm reduction approach often supply new needles and syringes on a confidential basis, as well as education on proper filtering prior to injection, safer injection techniques, safe disposal of used injecting gear and other equipment used when preparing heroin for injection may also be supplied including citric acid sachets/vitamin C sachets, steri-cups, filters, alcohol pre-injection swabs, sterile water ampules and tourniquets (to stop use of shoe laces or belts).
Withdrawal
The withdrawal syndrome from heroin may begin starting from within 6 to 24 hours of discontinuation of sustained use of the drug; however, this time frame can fluctuate with the degree of tolerance as well as the amount of the last consumed dose. Symptoms may include:
sweating,
malaise,
anxiety,
depression, persistent and intense penile erection in males (
priapism), extra sensitivity of the genitals in females, general feeling of heaviness, cramp-like pains in the limbs,
pandiculation and
lacrimation, sleep difficulties (
insomnia), cold sweats, chills, severe muscle and bone aches not precipitated by any physical trauma; nausea and
vomiting, diarrhea,
goose bumps,
cramps, and
fever.
[25][26] Many users also complain of a painful condition, the so-called "itchy blood", which often results in compulsive scratching that causes bruises and sometimes ruptures the skin, leaving scabs. Abrupt termination of heroin use causes muscle spasms in the legs of the user (
restless leg syndrome). Users taking the "
cold turkey" approach (withdrawal without using symptom-reducing or counteractive drugs), or induced withdrawal with opiate antagonist drugs, are more likely to experience the negative effects of withdrawal in a more pronounced manner.
Two general approaches are available to ease the physical part of opioid withdrawal. The first is to substitute a longer-acting opioid such as
methadone or
buprenorphine for heroin or another short-acting opioid and then slowly taper the dose.
In the second approach,
benzodiazepines such as
diazepam (Valium) may temporarily ease the often extreme anxiety of opioid withdrawal. The most common benzodiazepine employed as part of the detox protocol in these situations is
oxazepam (Serax). Benzodiazepine use must be prescribed with care because benzodiazepines have an addiction potential, and many opioid users also use other central nervous system
depressants, especially alcohol. Also, though unpleasant, opioid withdrawal seldom has the potential to be fatal, whereas complications related to withdrawal from benzodiazepines,
barbiturates and alcohol (such as epileptic
seizures,
cardiac arrest, and
delirium tremens) can prove hazardous and are potentially fatal.
Many symptoms of opioid withdrawal are due to rebound hyperactivity of the
sympathetic nervous system, which can be suppressed with
clonidine (Catapres), a centrally-acting alpha-2 agonist primarily used to treat
hypertension. Another drug sometimes used to relieve the "restless legs" symptom of withdrawal is
baclofen, a
muscle relaxant. Diarrhea can likewise be treated symptomatically with the peripherally active opioid drug
loperamide.
Buprenorphine is one of the substances most recently licensed for the substitution of opioids in the treatment of users. Being a partial opioid agonist/antagonist, it develops a lower grade of tolerance than heroin or methadone due to the so-called ceiling effect. It also has less severe withdrawal symptoms than heroin when discontinued abruptly, which should never be done without proper medical supervision. It is usually administered every 24-48 hrs. Buprenorphine is a kappa-opioid receptor antagonist. This gives the drug an anti-depressant effect, increasing physical and intellectual activity. Buprenorphine also acts as a partial agonist at the same μ-receptor where opioids like heroin exhibit their action. Due to its effects on this receptor, all patients whose tolerance is above a certain level are unable to obtain any "high" from other opioids during buprenorphine treatment except for very high doses.
Researchers at
Johns Hopkins University have been testing a sustained-release "depot" form of buprenorphine that can relieve cravings and withdrawal symptoms for up to six weeks.
[27] A sustained-release formulation would allow for easier administration and adherence to treatment, and reduce the risk of diversion or misuse.
Methadone is another μ-opioid agonist most often used to substitute for heroin in treatment for heroin addiction. Compared to heroin, methadone is well (but slowly) absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and has a much longer duration of action of approximately 24 hours. Thus
methadone maintenance avoids the rapid cycling between
intoxication and withdrawal associated with heroin addiction. In this way, methadone has shown some success as a "less harmful substitute"; despite bearing about the same addiction potential as heroin, it is recommended for those who have repeatedly failed to complete withdrawal or have recently relapsed. As of 2005, the μ-
opioid agonist buprenorphine is also being used to manage heroin addiction, being a superior, though still imperfect and not yet widely known alternative to methadone. Methadone, since it is longer-acting, produces withdrawal symptoms that appear later than with heroin, but usually last considerably longer and can in some cases be more intense. Methadone withdrawal symptoms can potentially persist for over a month, compared to heroin where significant physical symptoms would subside in 4 days.
Three opioid
antagonists are known:
naloxone and the longer-acting
naltrexone and
nalmefene. These medications block the effects of heroin, as well as the other opioids at the receptor site. Recent studies have suggested that the addition of naltrexone may improve the success rate in treatment programs when combined with the traditional therapy.
The
University of Chicago undertook preliminary development of a heroin vaccine in
monkeys during the 1970s, but it was abandoned. There were two main reasons for this. Firstly, when immunized monkeys had an increase in dose of x16, their
antibodies became
saturated and the monkey had the same effect from heroin as non-immunized monkeys. Secondly, until they reached the x16 point immunized monkeys would substitute other drugs to get a heroin-like effect. These factors suggested that immunized human users would simply either take massive quantities of heroin, or switch to other drugs, which is known as
cross-tolerance.
There is also a controversial treatment for heroin addiction based on a
Iboga-derived African drug,
ibogaine. Many people travel abroad for ibogaine treatments that generally interrupt substance use disorders for 3-6 months or more in up to 80% of patients.
[28] Relapse may occur when the person returns home to their normal environment however, where drug seeking behavior may return in response to social and environmental cues. Ibogaine treatments are carried out in several countries including Mexico and Canada as well as, in South and Central America and Europe. Opioid withdrawal therapy is the most common use of ibogaine. Some patients find ibogaine therapy more effective when it is given several times over the course of a few months or years. A synthetic derivative of ibogaine,
18-methoxycoronaridine was specifically designed to overcome cardiac and neurotoxic effects seen in some ibogaine research but, the drug has not yet found its way into clinical research..
Heroin prescription
The UK Department of Health's Rolleston Committee report in 1926 established the British approach to
heroin prescription to users, which was maintained for the next forty years: dealers were prosecuted, but doctors could prescribe heroin to users when withdrawing from it would cause harm or severe distress to the patient. This "policing and prescribing" policy effectively controlled the perceived heroin problem in the UK until the 1960s. Attitudes eventually began to change, however: in 1964 only specialized clinics and selected approved doctors were allowed to prescribe heroin to users. Eventually, from the 1970s, the emphasis shifted to abstinence and the prescription of methadone, until now only a small number of users in the UK are prescribed heroin.
[29]
In 1994 Switzerland began a trial program featuring a heroin prescription for users not well suited for withdrawal programs—e.g. those that had failed multiple withdrawal programs. The aim is maintaining the health of the user in order to avoid medical problems stemming from low-quality street heroin. Reducing
drug-related crime was another goal. Users can more easily get or maintain a paid job through the program as well. The first trial in 1994 began with 340 users and it was later expanded to 1000 after medical and social studies suggested its continuation. Participants are prescribed to inject heroin in specially designed pharmacies for about US $13 per dose.
[30]
The success of the Swiss trials led German, Dutch,
[31] and Canadian
[32] cities to try out their own heroin prescription programs.
[33] Some Australian cities (such as Sydney) have trialed legal heroin injecting rooms, in line with other wider
harm minimization programs. Heroin is unavailable on prescription however, and remains illegal outside the injecting room, and effectively decriminalized inside of the injecting room.
Drug interactions
Opioids are strong
central nervous system depressants, but regular users develop
physiological tolerance allowing gradually increased dosages. In combination with other central nervous system depressants, heroin may still kill even experienced users, particularly if their tolerance to the drug has reduced or the strength of their usual dose has increased.
Toxicology studies of heroin-related deaths reveal frequent involvement of other central nervous system depressants, including alcohol, benzodiazepines such as diazepam (
Valium), and, to a rising degree, methadone. Ironically, benzodiazepines are often used in the treatment of heroin addiction while they cause much more severe withdrawal symptoms.
Cocaine sometimes proves to be fatal when used in combination with heroin. Though "
speedballs" (when injected) or "
moonrocks" (when smoked) are a popular mix of the two drugs among users, combinations of
stimulants and depressants can have unpredictable and sometimes fatal results. In the United States in early 2006, a rash of deaths was attributed to either a combination of
fentanyl and heroin, or pure fentanyl as heroin particularly in the Detroit Metro Area; one news report refers to the combination as 'laced heroin', though this is likely a generic rather than a specific term.
[34]
Culture
Heroin has inspired countless writers, musicians and other artists over the past century of use. However, its influence is often misunderstood or unfairly assumed; many creative people have used or been addicted to heroin, but the extent to which the drug affected their creativity is debatable. Relatively few artists with great talent have credited heroin use with major epiphanies. The 1996
Danny Boyle film ''
Trainspotting'', based on the book by
Irvine Welsh, depicts heroin users in the areas around
Edinburgh in
Scotland. Other movies that deal with heroin users include the 1955
Frank Sinatra film ''
The Man with the Golden Arm''; the 1971
Al Pacino film, ''
Panic in Needle Park''; the 2000 film ''
Requiem for a Dream''; ''
More''; and the 1998 television movie ''
Gia'' starring
Angelina Jolie about drug-addicted supermodel
Gia Carangi.
See also
★
Morphine
★
Opioids
★
Black Tar Heroin
★
Cheese (recreational drug)
★
China White
★
HIV in Yunnan
★
Drugs and prostitution
★
Ibogaine
★
Monoacetylmorphine
★
Dipropanoylmorphine
★
Diacetyldihydromorphine
★
Recreational drug use
★
Psychoactive drug
★
The Great Binge
★
Opium
★
Polish heroin
★
Poppy
★
Drug injection
★
Illegal drug trade
★
Hillbilly heroin
References
1. Evidence for controlled heroin use? high levels of negative health and social outcomes among non-treatment heroin users in Glasgow, David Shewan, Phil Dalgarno, , , British Journal of Health Psychology, 2005
2. Occasional and controlled heroin use: Not a problem?
3. Yellow List: List of Narcotic Drugs Under International Control ''Referring URL = http://www.incb.org/incb/yellow_list.html''
4. Opium Throughout History
5. On the Action of Organic Acids and their Anhydrides on the Natural Alkaloids Note: this is an annotated excerpt of On the Action of Organic Acids and their Anhydrides on the Natural Alkaloids, , C.R.A., Wright, Journal of the Chemical Society, 1874
6. owden, Mary Ellen. Pharmaceutical Achievers. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2002.
7. How aspirin turned hero
8. Treaty of Versailles
9. Time series modeling of heroin and morphine drug action., Tschacher W, Haemmig R, Jacobshagen N., , , Psychopharmacology, 2003
10. W. R. Martin 1 and H. F. Fraser 1
11. 1 National Institute of Mental Health, Addiction Research Center, U. S. Public Health Service Hospital, Lexington, Kentucky
12. Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics, Vol. 133, Issue 3, 388-399, 1961
13. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,11069-2329203,00.html
14. The War in Afghanistan: Drugs, Money Laundering and the Banking System
15. Afghanistan opium survey - 2004
16. Terrorism's Harvest: How al-Qaeda is tapping into the opium trade to finance its operations and destabilize Afghanistan
17. Opium Harvest at Record Level in Afghanistan
18. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15612648
19. http://kidneyfoundation.ab.ca/Be_Active/preserving_function.htm
20. http://www.kidney.ab.ca/health/index.html
21. http://www.kidney.org/kidneydisease/howkidneyswrk.cfm
22. [2]
23. Fatal Heroin 'Overdose': a Review, Shane Darke, Deborah Zador, , , Addiction, 1996
24. personhttp://lincoln.pps.k12.or.us/lscheffler/ToxicSubstances%20in%20water.htm
25. http://www.drugaddictiontreatment.info/heroin.htm
26. http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/aha/aha_subabu_bha.htm
27. Buprenorphine Proves Effective, Expands Options For Treatment of Heroin Addiction
28. H.S. Lotsof. Ibogaine in the Treatment of Chemical Dependence Disorders: Clinical Perspectives. MAPS Bulletin 1995 V(3):19-26
29. Methadone and Heroin: An Exercise in Medical Scepticism
30. Switzerland's Heroin Experiment
31. Heroin prescription 'cuts costs'
32. About the study
33. Incidence of heroin use in Zurich, Switzerland: a treatment case register analysis
34. Heroin's Hell Robin Brown
^ Bowden, Mary Ellen. Pharmaceutical Achievers. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2002.
Literature
★ ''Heroin'' (1998) ISBN 1-56838-153-0
★ ''Heroin Century'' (2002) ISBN 0-415-27899-6
★ ''This is Heroin'' (2002) ISBN 1-86074-424-9
★ ''The Heroin User's Handbook'' by
Francis Moraes (paperback 2004) ISBN 1-55950-216-9
★ ''The Little Book of Heroin'' by Francis Moraes (paperback 2000) ISBN 0-914171-98-4
★ ''Heroin: A True Story of Addiction, Hope and Triumph'' by Julie O'Toole (paperback 2005) ISBN 1-905379-01-3
External links
★
EMCDDA drugs profiles: heroin (2007)
★
Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia, especially opium and heroin production and trafficking in and around Afghanistan and Burma (Articles and maps and French and English)
★
Drugs Factfile what you really need to know
★
The mismanagement of methadone
★
National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment - non-profit education website for treatment of Heroin addiction
★
NIDA InfoFacts on Heroin
★
ONDCP Drug Facts
★
United States Department of State fact sheet: anti-narcotics efforts in Pakistan - dated
June 7,
2002
★
BBC Article entitled 'When Heroin Was Legal'. References to the United Kingdom and the United States
★
Heroin Facts
★
Information on heroin and other illicit drugs
★
Heroin news page -
Alcohol and Drugs History Society
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