(Redirected from Hallucinogen)
The general group of
pharmacological agents commonly known as 'hallucinogens' can be divided into three broad categories:
psychedelics,
dissociatives, and
deliriants. These classes of
psychoactive drugs have in common that they can cause subjective changes in
perception,
thought,
emotion and
consciousness. Unlike other
psychoactive drugs, such as
stimulants and
opioids, the hallucinogens do not merely amplify familiar states of mind, but rather induce experiences that are qualitatively different from those of ordinary consciousness. These experiences are often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as
trance,
meditation,
conversion experiences, and
dreams.
One thing that most of these drugs do not do, despite the ingrained usage of the term ''hallucinogen'', is to cause hallucinations.
Hallucinations, strictly speaking, are perceptions that have no basis in reality, but that appear ''entirely'' realistic. A typical "hallucination" induced by a psychedelic drug is more accurately described as a modification of regular perception, and the subject is usually quite aware of the illusory and personal nature of their perceptions. Some less common drugs, such as
dimethyltryptamine and
atropine, may cause hallucinations in the proper sense.
Psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants have a long history of use within medicinal and religious traditions around the world. They are used in
shamanic forms of ritual
healing and
divination, in
initiation rites, and in the religious rituals of
syncretistic movements such as
União do Vegetal,
Santo Daime, and the
Native American Church.
When used in religious practice, psychedelic drugs, as well as other substances like
tobacco, are referred to as
entheogens.
Dr.
Albert Hofmann, whose discovery of
LSD led to wide-spread Western interest in psychedelics
Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs have been the object of extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treating
depression,
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder,
Obsessive-compulsive Disorder,
alcoholism,
opioid addiction,
cluster headaches, and other ailments. Early military research focused on their use as incapacitating agents. Intelligence agencies tested these drugs in the hope that they would provide an effective means of
interrogation, with little success.
Yet the most popular, and at the same time most stigmatized, use of psychedelics in Western culture has been associated with the search for direct
religious experience, enhanced
creativity, personal development, and "mind expansion". The use of psychedelic drugs was a major element of the
1960s
counterculture, where it became associated with various political movements and a general atmosphere of rebellion and strife between generations.
Despite prohibition, the recreational, spiritual, and medical use of psychedelics continues today. Organizations, such as
Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies and the
Heffter Research Institute, have arisen that sponsor research into their safety and effects, and advocacy groups such as the
Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics push for their legalization.
Psychedelics
Main articles: psychedelic drug
The word 'psychedelic' (From
Ancient Greek 'ψυχή' (psychê) ''mind, soul'' + 'δηλος' (dêlos) ''manifest, visible'' + -ic) was coined to express the idea of a drug that makes manifest some hidden but quite real aspect of the mind. It is commonly applied to any drug with perception-altering effects such as
LSD,
psilocybin,
DMT,
2C-B,
mescaline, and
DOM as well as a panoply of other
tryptamines,
phenethylamines and yet more exotic chemicals, all of which appear to act mainly on the
5-HT2A receptor. Common herbal sources of psychedelics include
psilocybe mushrooms, various
ayahuasca preparations,
peyote,
San Pedro cactus, and the seeds of
morning glory and
Hawaiian baby woodrose.
Perhaps because the psychedelic experience is so different from the experiences that our languages are commonly used to describe, much debate exists not only about the nature and causes, but even about the very description of the effects of psychedelic drugs. One prominent tradition involves the "reducing valve" concept, first articulated in
Aldous Huxley's book ''
The Doors of Perception''.
[1] In this view, the drugs disable the brain's "filtering" ability to selectively prevent certain perceptions, emotions, memories and thoughts from ever reaching the conscious mind. This effect has been described as ''mind expanding'', or ''consciousness expanding'', for the drug "expands" the realm of experience available to conscious awareness.
Yet the most remarkable characteristic of psychedelic effects is how much they vary depending on the precise drug, dosage, set, and setting. "Trips" range between the short but intense effects of intravenous
DMT to the protracted
ibogaine experience, which can last for days. Appropriate dosage ranges from extremely low (
LSD) to rather high (
mescaline). Some drugs, like the auditory hallucinogen
DIPT, act specifically to distort a single sense, and others have more diffuse effects on cognition generally. Some are more conducive to solitary experiences, while others are positively
empathogenic. Indeed, the popular drug
MDMA ("ecstasy") has virtually none of the classical psychedelic effects, and is often thought of as purely
empathogenic and in a different category from the psychedelics altogether.
Many psychedelics (
LSD,
psilocybin,
mescaline and numerous others) are non-toxic, making it difficult to overdose on these compounds.
Dissociatives
Main articles: dissociative drug
Dissociatives are drugs that reduce (or block) signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain, typically (but not necessarily, or limited to) the physical senses. Such a state of
sensory deprivation can 'facilitate' self exploration, hallucinations, and dreamlike states of mind which may resemble some psychedelic mindstates. Essentially similar states of mind can be reached via contrasting paths—psychedelic or dissociative. That said, the entire experience, risks and benefits are markedly different.
The primary dissociatives are similar in action to
PCP (angel dust) and include
Ketamine (an anaesthetic), and
DXM (dextromethorphan, an active ingredient in many cough syrups). Also included are
nitrous oxide, and
muscimol from the
Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) mushroom.
Many dissociatives also have
CNS depressant effects, thereby carrying similar risks as
opioids to slowing breathing or heart rate to levels resulting in death (when using very high doses). This does not appear to be true in other cases; and the principal risk of nitrous oxide seems to be due to
oxygen deprivation. Injury from falling is also a danger, as nitrous oxide may cause sudden loss of consciousness, an effect of oxygen deprivation. Long term use of dissociative anaesthetics such as PCP and Ketamine (and possibly
DXM) have been suspected to cause
Olney's lesions (N-Methyl d-Aspartate Antagonist Neurotoxicity), though these lesions have never been demonstrated in primates to date.
Deliriants
Main articles: deliriant
The ''deliriants'' (or
anticholinergics) are a special class of dissociative which are antagonists for the
acetylcholine receptors (unlike
muscarine and
nicotine which are agonists of these receptors). Deliriants are sometimes called ''true hallucinogens'', because they do cause hallucinations in the proper sense: a user may have conversations with people who aren't there, or become angry at a 'person' mimicking their actions, not realizing it is their own reflection in a mirror. They are called deliriants because their effects are similar to the experiences of people with delirious fevers. While
dissociatives can produce effects similar to
lucid dreaming (where one is consciously aware they are dreaming), the deliriants have effects akin to
sleepwalking (where one doesn't remember what happened during the experience).
Included in this group are such plants as
deadly nightshade,
mandrake,
henbane and
datura, as well as a number of pharmaceutical drugs when taken in very high doses such as the antihistamine
diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and the antiemetic
dimenhydrinate (Dramamine or Gravol). Native Americans also consumed massive amounts of
tobacco during religious ceremonies in order to experience the deliriant effects.
In addition to the danger of being far more "out of it" than with other drugs, and retaining a truly fragmented dissociation from regular consciousness without being immobilized, the
anticholinergics are toxic, can cause death due to overdose, and also include a number of uncomfortable side effects. These side effects include
dehydration and
mydriasis (dilation of the pupils).
History of use
Hallucinogenic drugs are among the oldest drugs used by humankind, as hallucinogens naturally occur in
mushrooms,
cacti, and various other
plants. Various cultures have endorsed the use of hallucinogens in medicine, religion, and recreation to varying extents, and some have regulated or outright prohibited their use. Today, in most countries, the possession of many hallucinogens, even those that are common in nature, is considered a
crime and punished by fines, imprisonment, or even
death. In the
United States, some deference is given to traditional religious use by members of ethnic minorities such as the
Native American Church. Recently the
União do Vegetal, whose composition is not primarily ethnicity-based, won a Supreme Court decision authorizing its use of ayahuasca.
Traditional religious and shamanic use
Historically, hallucinogens have been most commonly used in religious or
shamanic rituals. In this context they are often referred to as
entheogens, and they are used to facilitate healing, divination, communication with spirits, and coming-of-age ceremonies. Evidence exists for the use of entheogens in
prehistoric times, as well as in numerous
ancient cultures, including the
Ancient Egyptian,
Mycenaean,
Ancient Greek,
Vedic,
Maya,
Inca the and
Aztec cultures. The
Upper Amazon is home to the strongest extant entheogenic tradition; the
Urarina of
Peruvian Amazonia, for instance, continue to practice an elaborate system of
ayahuasca shamanism, coupled with an
animistic belief system.
The rise of the Abrahamic religions (
Judaism,
Christianity and
Islam) caused a decline of
entheogenic use of hallucinogens use in its wake, as the authority of scripture and the priesthood gradually reduced the role granted to direct spiritual experience, especially by the laity. Examples of this development include the destruction of the
Eleusinian Mysteries, which are now widely assumed to have involved entheogenic rituals, and the Great
Witch Hunt of the
Early Modern Age, in which practitioners of entheogenic rites in Western Europe were accused of associating with the
devil. The Spanish conquistadores associated local entheogenic traditions of South America with heresy and satanism, and uprooted many of them, but nevertheless, some cultures there and elsewhere have kept their traditions alive to this day.
Early scientific investigations
Although natural hallucinogenic drugs have been known to mankind for millennia, it was not until the early
20th century that they received extensive attention from
Western science. Earlier beginnings include scientific studies of nitrous oxide in the late
18th century, and initial studies of the constituents of the peyote cactus in the late
19th century. Starting in
1927 with
Kurt Beringer's ''Der Meskalinrausch'' (The Mescaline Intoxication), more intensive effort began to be focused on studies of psychoactive plants. Around the same time, Louis Lewin published his extensive survey of psychoactive plants, ''Phantastica'' (1928). Important developments in the years that followed included the re-discovery of
Mexican magic mushrooms (in
1936 by Robert J. Weitlaner) and
ololiuhqui (in
1939 by
Richard Evans Schultes). Arguably the most important pre-
World War II development was by
Albert Hofmann's
1938 invention of the semi-
synthetic drug LSD, which was later discovered to produce hallucinogenic effects, in
1943.
Hallucinogens after World War II
After World War II there was an explosion of interest in hallucinogenic drugs in
psychiatry, owing mainly to the discovery of LSD. Interest in the drugs tended to focus on either the potential for
psychotherapeutic applications of the drugs (see ''
psychedelic psychotherapy''), or on the use of hallucinogens to produce a "controlled
psychosis", in order to understand psychotic disorders such as
schizophrenia. By
1951, more than 100 articles on LSD appeared in medical journals, and by
1961, the number increased to more than 1000 articles
[2]. Hallucinogens were also researched in several countries for their potential as agents of
chemical warfare. Most famously, several tragic incidents associated with the
CIA's
MK-ULTRA mind control research project have been the topic of media attention and lawsuits.
At the beginning of the
1950s, the existence of hallucinogenic drugs was virtually unknown among the general public of the West. However this soon changed as several influential figures were introduced to the hallucinogenic experience.
Aldous Huxley's
1953 essay ''
The Doors of Perception'', describing his experiences with mescaline, and
R. Gordon Wasson's
1957 Life magazine article (''Seeking the Magic Mushroom'') brought the topic into the public limelight. In the early
1960s,
counterculture icons such as
Jimi Hendrix,
Jim Morrison,
Jerry Garcia,
Joe Mungo,
MIke Rosato,
Samantha Onorato,
Timothy Leary,
Allen Ginsberg and
Ken Kesey advocated the drugs for their
psychedelic effects, and a large
subculture of psychedelic drug users was spawned. Many people argue that psychedelic drugs played a major role in catalyzing the vast social changes initiated in the
1960s.
As a result of the growing popularity of LSD, and, some contend,
establishment disdain for the
hippies with whom it was heavily associated, LSD was banned in the
United States in
1967.
Social status of hallucinogens
After the fading from public sight as one of the many elements of the 1960s counterculture, hallucinogen use took a less visible but nevertheless persistent role in Western society in the
1970s and
1980s. In the
1990s and
2000s something of a revival of interest in the drugs has occurred. There are probably several important contributing factors to the resurgence.
One is the rise of
dance-based
rave and
trance culture, in which participants frequently use drugs such as the
entactogen MDMA, and to a lesser extent, other hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD,
magic mushrooms and
ketamine, as an aid to inducing
ecstatic or
trance states of consciousness. A second major contributing factor to the revival of interest in hallucinogenic drugs has been the advent of the
Internet and
World Wide Web. This has made information pertaining to drugs much more accessible to the general public, provided a platform for
advocacy that was not previously available, and has enabled otherwise isolated interested parties to communicate and exchange information and experiences.
Legal status and attitudes
As of 2007, most well known hallucinogens (aside from dextromethorphan, diphenhydramine and dimenhydrinate) are illegal in most Western countries. One notable exception to the current criminalization trend is in parts of
Western Europe, especially in the
Netherlands, where hallucinogenic mushrooms are considered to be so-called "
soft drugs", along with cannabis. While the possession of soft drugs is technically illegal, the Dutch government has decided that using law enforcement to combat their use is largely a waste of resources. As a result, public "coffeeshops" in the Netherlands openly sell cannabis for personal use, and "smart shops" sell drugs like psilocybin mushrooms and
ayahuasca (''See
Drug policy of the Netherlands'').
Since the latter part of the twentieth century, this attitude has spread throughout
Europe; many European countries no longer actively pursue anti-drug policies, and rarely enforce extant legal penalties for personal-use quantities of hallucinogenic drugs. This is especially true with mild hallucinogens such as cannabis, which is rapidly gaining acceptance in western Europe as a harmless and socially acceptable intoxicant, much as
alcohol is considered throughout the West. Despite being scheduled as a controlled substance in the mid 1980s,
ecstasy's popularity has been growing since that time in western Europe and in the
United States.
Attitudes towards hallucinogens other than cannabis have been slower to change. Several attempts to change the law on the grounds of
freedom of religion have been made. Some of these have been successful, for example the
Native American Church in the
United States, and
Santo Daime in
Brazil. Some people argue that a religious setting should not be necessary for the legitimacy of hallucinogenic drug use, and for this reason also criticize the euphemistic use of the term "entheogen". Non-religious reasons for the use of hallucinogens including
spiritual,
introspective,
psychotherapeutic,
recreational and even
hedonistic motives, each subject to some degree of social disapproval, have all been defended as the legitimate exercising of
civil liberties, including
freedom of thought and freedom of self-harm.
Many connect the idea of being "high" or going through a
psychedelic state, as having
brain damage or going crazy. This is due to the effect of the drug which, in some cases, can be overwhelming. Effects of these drugs can mimic
psychological conditions such as
psychosis,
schizophrenia, and
thought disorder. However, this is largely a misconception of the psychedelic state. After many studies investigating its possible use as a "psychotomimetic" and decades of personal/spiritual use it has become apparent that the psychedelic state is wholly different from a psychotic state and thus is ill-compared to schizophrenia and other mental disorders.
Several medical and scientific people, including
Albert Hofmann, advocate the drugs should not be banned, but should be strongly regulated and warn they can be dangerous without proper psychological supervision.
[1]
Taking a hallucinogenic drug without knowledge can result in psychological trauma, and has occurred many times because many psychedelic drugs such as LSD have low dose and can easily be added to food or drink, similar to "
date rape drugs" or
Mickey Finns, and those who deliberately do that can be charged with
assault. (These occurrences have created some
urban myths such as the
blue star tattoo myth).
Psychedelics and mental illnesses in long-term users
Most psychedelics are not known to have long-term physical toxicity. However, amphetamine-like psychedelics, such as
MDMA, that release neurotransmitters may stimulate increased formation of
free radicals possibly formed from
neurotransmitters released from the
synaptic vesicle. Free radicals are associated with cell damage in other contexts, and have been
suggested to be involved in many types of mental conditions including
Parkinson's disease,
senility,
schizophrenia, and
Alzheimer's. Research on this question has not reached a firm conclusion. The same concerns do not apply to psychedelics that do not release neurotransmitters, such as
LSD, nor to dissociatives and deliriants.
No clear connection has been made between psychedelic drugs and organic brain damage; however, high doses over time of some
dissociatives and
deliriants have been shown to cause
Olney's lesions in other animals, and have been suspected to occur in humans. Additionally,
Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a diagnosed condition where some effects of drugs persist after a long time--although medical technology has yet to determine what causes the condition.
Naming and taxonomy
Introduction to the psychedelic name zoo
The class of drugs described in this article has been described by a profusion of names, most of which are associated with a particular theory of their nature.
Louis Lewin started out in
1928 by using the word "phantastica" as the title of his ground-breaking monograph about plants that, in his words, "bring about evident cerebral excitation in the form of hallucinations, illusions and visions [...] followed by unconsciousness or other symptoms of altered cerebral functioning." But no sooner had the term been invented, or Lewin complained that the word "does not cover all that I should wish it to convey", and indeed with the proliferation of research following the discovery of LSD came numerous attempts to improve on it, such as "hallucinogen", "phanerothyme", "
psychedelic", "
psychotomimetic", "psycholytic", "schizophrenogenic", "cataleptogenic", "mysticomimetic", "psychodysleptic", and "entheogenic".
The word "psychotomimetic", meaning "mimicking
psychosis", reflects the hypothesis of early researchers that the effects of psychedelic drugs are similar to naturally occurring symptoms of schizophrenia, which has since been discredited. It remained for a long time somewhat of a shibboleth to be used in the titles of papers as a signal that the researcher disapproved of the casual use of a drug, but has now been displaced in the medical literature by "hallucinogen". The latter term is not entirely accurate, since hallucinations strictly speaking must be entirely realistic but have no basis in reality, while psychedelic effects are often better described as distortions of the ordinary senses.
While the word "psychotomimetic" is now outmoded, the theory it implies is still clearly visible in the
World Health Organization's definition of a hallucinogen as "a chemical agent that induces alterations in perception, thinking, and feeling which resemble those of the functional psychoses without producing the gross impairment of memory and orientation characteristic of the organic syndromes."
[2]
The word "psychedelic" was coined by Humphrey Osmond and has the rather mysterious but at least somewhat value-neutral meaning of "mind manifesting." The word "entheogen", on the other hand, which is often used to describe the religious and ritual use of psychedelic drugs in anthropological studies, is associated with the idea that it could be relevant to religion. The words "entactogen", "empathogen", "dissociative" and "deliriant", at last, have all been coined to refer to classes of drugs similar to the classical psychedelics that seemed deserving of a name of their own.
Taxonomy
Hallucinogens can be classified by their subjective effects, mechanisms of action, and chemical structure. These classifications often correlate to some extent. In this article, they are classified as
psychedelics,
dissociatives, and
deliriants, preferably entirely to the exclusion of the inaccurate word hallucinogen, but the reader is well advised to consider that this particular classification is not universally accepted. The taxonomy used here attempts to blend these three approaches in order to provide as clear and accessible an overview as possible.
Almost all hallucinogens contain
nitrogen and are therefore classified as
alkaloids.
THC and
Salvinorin A are exceptions. Many hallucinogens have chemical structures similar to those of human neurotransmitters, such as
serotonin, and temporarily modify the action of neurotransmitters and/or receptor sites.
Lewin's classes
A classical classification, mainly of historical interest, is that of Lewin (Phantastica, 1928):
:''Class I Phantastica'' roughly correspond to the
psychedelics, which is a more modern term usually used as synonym to "hallucinogen" by people with positive attitudes towards them. Here the term is used a bit differently to discriminate one particular class of hallucinogens which it seems to describe best. They typically have no sedative effects (sometimes the opposite) and there is usually a clearcut memory to their effects. These drugs have also been referred to as the "classical" hallucinogens.
:''Class II Phantastica'' correspond to the other classes in our scheme. They tend to sedate in addition to their hallucinogenic properties and there often is an impaired memory trace after the effects wear off.
Pharmacological classes of hallucinogens
One possible way of classifying the hallucinogens is by their chemical structure and that of the receptors they act on. In this vein, the following categories are often used:
★
Psychedelics (
serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists)
★
★
Tryptamines
★
★
★
Lysergamides
★
★
Phenethylamines
★
★
★ Substituted phenethylamines
★
★
★ Substituted
amphetamines
★
★
★
★
Empathogens and/or Entactogens (
serotonin releasers)
★
★
Cannabinoids (CB-1 cannabinoid receptor agonists)
★
Dissociatives
★
★
NMDA receptor antagonists and
sigma1 ligands
★
★
Inhalants
★
★
Cholinergics
★
Deliriants (
anticholinergics)
★
★
Tropanes
★
★
Antihistamines
Hallucinogenic organisms
The following is a list of some organisms known to contain hallucinogens
★ Plants
★
★ Psychedelics
★
★
★
Ayahuasca (contains
DMT and an
MAOI, commonly ''
Banisteriopsis caapi'' with ''
Psychotria viridis'')
★
★
★
Epená (''Virola sp.'') (contains
5-MeO-DMT and DMT)
★
★
★
Hawaiian baby woodrose (''
Argyreia nervosa'') (contains
ergine)
★
★
★
Ololiuhqui/
Coaxihuitl (''Turbina/
Rivea corymbosa'') (contains
ergine)
★
★
★
Tlitliltzin/Badoh Negro (''
Ipomoea violacea'') (contains
ergine)
★
★
★
Iboga (''
Tabernanthe iboga'') (contains
ibogaine)
★
★ Cacti psychedelics
★
★
★
Peruvian Torch cactus (''Trichocereus peruvianus'') (contains
mescaline)
★
★
★
Peyote cactus (''Lophophora williamsii'') (contains
mescaline)
★
★
★
San Pedro cactus (''Trichocereus pachanoi'') (contains
mescaline)
★
★ Quasi-psychedelics
★
★
★
Cannabis (contains
THC)
★
★
★
Sinicuichi (''Heimia salicifolia'') (questioned hallucinogenic activity)
★
★
★
Nutmeg (''Myristica fragrans'') (contains Myristicin)
★
★ Dissociatives
★
★
★ there are no known "true" (NMDA antagonists) plant dissociatives
★
★ Deliriants
★
★
★
Deadly nightshade (''Atropa belladonna'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
★
★
★
Floripondio (''Brugmansia sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
★
★
★
Henbane (''Hyoscyamus niger'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
★
★
★
Mandrake (''Mandragora sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
★
★
★
Thorn Apple/Jimson Weed (''Datura sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
★ Fungi
★
★ Psychedelics
★
★
★
Psilocybe mushrooms (''Psilocybe sp.'' and some ''Conocybe'', ''Panaeolus'' and ''Stropharia'') (contain
psilocybin and
psilocin)
★
★
★
Ergot fungus (''Claviceps purpurea'') (not hallucinogenic in itself, but contains
ergotamine)
★
★ Dissociatives
★
★
★
Fly Agaric mushroom (''Amanita muscaria'') (contains
muscimol)
★ Animals
★
★ Psychedelics
★
★
★
Psychoactive toads (''Bufo alvarius'') (contain 5-MeO-DMT and
bufotenine)
See also
★
Contact high
★
Empathogen
★
Entactogen
★
Entheogen
★
Ergotism
★
Hallucinogenic effects of banana peels
★
Psilocybin mushroom
★
Psychedelic
★
Psychoactive or
psychotropic
★
Pharmacology
★
Psychedelic psychotherapy
★
Research chemicals
★
Richard Evans Schultes and
Albert Hofmann, ''Plants of the Gods''
★
Set and setting
★
Psychedelic psychotherapy
★
Psychedelic plants
★
Psychonaut
★
Recreational drug use
★
Responsible drug use
★
Hard and soft drugs
★
Altered state of consciousness
★
Lucid dreaming
★
Sensory deprivation
★
Out-of-body experience
★
Overdose
★
Bad trip
★
Monomyth
★
Neurotheology
★
Core Shamanism
Notes
1. The Doors of Perception, , Aldous, Huxley, Harper & Bros, 1954,
2. Flashback: Psychiatric Experimentation With LSD in Historical Perspective, , Erika, Dyck, The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 2005
Literature
The literature about psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants is vast. The following books provide accessible and up-to-date introductions to this literature:
★ Ann & Alexander Shulgin: PIHKAL (Phenethylamines I Have Known And Loved), a Chemical Love Story
★ Ann & Alexander Shulgin: TIHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known And Loved), the Continuation
★ Charles S. Grob, ed.: Hallucinogens, a reader
The following review paper is the definitive source of technical scientific information about hallucinogens:
★ David Nichols:
Hallucinogens
A scholarly bibliography on the use of these substances in the history of psychology has also been developed for specific use by bloggers and Wikipedians. (Abstracts included for ease of updating.) Find it
here.
External links
★
Erowid is a web site dedicated entirely to providing information about psychoactive drugs, with an impressive collection of trip reports, materials collected from the web and usenet, and a bibliography of scientific literature
★
Evidence: Academic ressources on hallucinogens- and MDMA research, relapse prevention and harm reduction.
★
The Shroomery has detailed information about magic mushrooms including identification, cultivation and spores, psychedelic images, trip reports and an active community.
★
Third-Plateau.org is a comprehensive site detailing uses and risks associated with DXM
★
Coricidin (Dextromethorphan + Chlorpheniramine Maleate) Harm Reduction, devoted exclusively to risks of Coricidin abuse.
★
TCCWiki A free collaborative drug information project that anyone can edit
★
Psychedelic Drugs in the Twentieth Century (Grinspoon)
★
Plants of the Gods - The Way of the Shaman
★
PsychedelicJones One man's experiences exploring psychedelic consciousness with magic mushrooms, salvia divinorum and other substances.
★
Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics
★
Spirit Plants
★
Growing Entheogenic Plants (Plot55.com)
★
"The Neurochemistry of Psychedelic Experience" by Michael Lyvers, ''Science & Consciousness Review'', June, 2003. (Archived at ''
Internet Archive'')
★
Growing hallicinogens
★
Fact sheets on minimizing bad trips and other illicit drug information
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