Location of Mesoamerica
The 'geography of Mesoamerica' entails the
physical and
human geography of
Mesoamerica, a
culture area inhabited by
complex indigenous pre-Columbian cultures exhibiting a suite of shared and common cultural characteristics. Several well-known Mesoamerican cultures include the
Olmec,
Teotihuacan, the
Maya, and the
Aztec. Mesoamerica is often subdivided in a number of ways. One common method, albeit a broad and general classification, is to distinguish between the highlands and lowlands. Another way is to subdivide the region into sub-areas that generally correlate to either
culture areas or specific
physiographic regions.
Geographic location
Location of Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica – literally, "
America" – is located in the mid-
latitudes (between 10° and 22° N) of the Americas in the southern portion of
North America, encompassing much of the
isthmus that joins it with
South America. Situated within the wider region known as
Middle America,
[1] Mesoamerica extends from south-central
Mexico southeastward to include the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the
Yucatán Peninsula,
Guatemala,
Belize,
El Salvador, and the
Pacific coast of
Honduras,
Nicaragua, and
Costa Rica down to the
Gulf of Nicoya.
The term ''Mesoamerica'' may occasionally refer to the contemporary region comprising the
nine southeastern states of Mexico (
Campeche,
Chiapas,
Guerrero,
Oaxaca,
Puebla,
Quintana Roo,
Tabasco,
Veracruz, and
Yucatán) and the
countries of Central America (including
Panama).
[2]
Physiography
The region possesses a complex combination of ecological systems. Archaeologist and anthropologist
Michael D. Coe groups these different
niches into two broad categories: lowlands (those areas between
sea level and 1000 meters) and ''altiplanos'' or highlands (those situated between 1000 and 2000
meters above sea level). In the low-lying regions,
sub-tropical and
tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Gulf of Mexico and the
Caribbean Sea. The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold
mountainous climates, the dominant climate is
temperate with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall.
Highlands
Landscape of the Mesoamerican highlands
The
turkey was one of the few species domesticated by the Mesoamericans.
The
jaguar, common throughout southeast Mesoamerica, was symbolic to many pre-Columbian groups.
The highlands of Mesoamerica generally contain two separate regions: the mountainous zone of central and western Mexico, and the highlands of Guatemala and the Mexican state of Chiapas. The
topography,
climate, and
soil fertility of the highlands can vary dramatically. In central and western Mexico, the most fertile soil is found among the low-lying valleys. Several of these, including the Valley of
Oaxaca,
Puebla-
Tlaxcala, and the
Valley of Mexico (now the
Mexican Federal District), were historically important locations where complex pre-Columbian societies developed. The tall mountainous peaks of the
Sierra Madres, however, impedes the movement of
clouds and reduces the amount of
rainfall the region receives. Indeed, the hot
arid valleys of the
Mixtec area and in the state of
Guerrero are among two of the driest areas in the highlands.
Initial hypotheses concerning environmental conditions postulated that the highland climate was more hospitable in the past. More recent research has made it clear that the climate past was not very different than that of today, even though the
ecosystems do show a significant degree of decline due to human activity. Many parts of the highlands show evidence of early
deforestation, and various species have disappeared from their former
habitats.
The highlands of Mesoamerica, while not extraordinarily rich, proved sufficiently fertile to allow the development of the high agricultural cultures of ancient,
pre-Hispanic times. In fact, the situation was quite similar to that of other regions of the world where early civilizations thrived, as in the north of Peru, or in the valley of the
Indus River in Asia. In these sites, as in Mesoamerica, humans developed methods in which the limited available resources could be fully exploited. Highland
agrarian cultures learned to store water or divert it from its sources in the mountains to the cultivable lands. One of the most well-known adaptations was the use of ''
chinampas'', or artificial islands upon which plants could be
cultivated. Chinampas were originally used by the
Tarascans in western Guerrero and by the Aztec in the Valley of Mexico. Several chinampas still survive in
Xochimilco.
Lowlands
Like the highlands, environmental variability in the Mesoamerican lowlands is equally diverse, ranging from the lush tropical climate of lowland Veracruz to the semi-arid brush forests of northern Yucatan. On the southeast coast of the Gulf of Mexico, in Belize, and in southern Campeche and Quintana Roo, rainfall can be quite heavy. The tropical forests found there are diverse in the vegetation species present and this, in addition to the overabundance of water, presented obstacles inhibiting the development of agriculture (but this is not to say that agriculture did not develop in the lowlands). To offset the environmental constraints, the ancient Mesoamericans employed a series of
agricultural adaptations. One such adaptation was the use of
drainage systems, exemplified by the ''camellones chontales'' found in the
Chontalpa region of
Tabasco. Another systematic adaptation was the use of raised-field agriculture, as seen at the Preclassic site of
Cerros, in Belize.
The lowlands, however, offered a great degree of variability usable
flora and
fauna resources. These included resources that could not only be consume in lieu of full-scale agriculture, but also traded to obtain other goods. Furthermore, a general increase in the accessibility of the
coast facilitated transportation, interregional communication, and trade.
Cultural Areas
Map of the cultural areas of Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica as a whole is considered a
culture area within which a number of cultural sub-areas existed. While all
cultures in Mesoamerica share a number of
common characteristics, cultural sub-areas are defined by a higher level of specificity in defining elements (i.e., classification of cultural sub-areas is based on more specific criteria than the more broadly defined Mesoamerica). The sub-areas generally correlate with known cultural groups, such as the areas where the Maya,
Huastec, and Olmec were found, for example. This is not to say that all the peoples in an area share a common
ethnicity (indeed, in many cases they do not even share the same language) or lived within or under a single
polity. At the same time, based on cultural similarities, it is clear that various kinds of interaction occurred within sub-areas, be them historical relationships, political interaction (e.g., alliances, conflict), and/or economic or commercial agreements. Listed below are the sub-areas found in Mesoamerica.
Central Mexico
Teotihuacan, in central Mexico.
One of the most important areas in the pre-Columbian history of Mexico is known as 'Central Mexico'. This area is composed of moderate to cold valleys in the southern part of the Mexican high plateau and in the north of the
Balsas River basin. It is an ecological niche characterized by its temperate climate and absence of significant water sources. The rains arrive between the months of April and September, and are not abundant. This led to the early development of hydraulic projects, among them the building of canals from the rivers–reservoirs in the hillsides for storing water.
The valley of
Tehuacán, located in the southeast of this region, is important for the early evidence of
maize cultivation and some of the oldest
ceramic artifacts (
sherds) in Mesoamerica. The
Valley of Mexico, location of
Lake Texcoco, was the home for several important cultures, including
Cuicuilco, Teotihuacan,
Tula (Toltec), and the Aztec capital of
Tenochtitlan.
Maya Region
The Maya region is the largest in Mesoamerica. As such, it encompasses a vast and varied landscape, from the mountainous regions of the Sierra Madre to the semi-arid plains of northern Yucatan. Climate in the Maya region can vary tremendously, as the low-lying areas are particularly susceptible to the
hurricanes and
tropical storms that frequent the
Caribbean. The region is generally divided into three loosely defined zones: the southern Maya highlands, the southern (or central) Maya lowlands, and the northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya highlands include all of elevated terrain in Guatemala and the
Chiapas highlands. The southern lowlands lie just north of the highlands, and incorporate the
Petén of northern Guatemala, Belize, and the southern portions of the Mexican states of Campeche and Quintana Roo. The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the Yucatán Peninsula, including the
Puuc hills.
Geologically, the Maya region consists of a
limestone plateau that rises slightly toward the south, ending where the mountainous zone interrupts the plain.
Northern Maya lowlands
The climate of the northern Maya lowlands can vary greatly. The northwestern part of the peninsula is considered
semi-arid and one of the driest in the Maya region, while the northeast receives a greater amount of rainfall. There is an overall lack of surface water in the northern lowlands, though
cenotes are common and provide a source of water. Generally, the
water table (or
aquifer) is not particularly deep, and the excavation of wells is possible once the
bedrock cap is pierced. With the exception of the Puuc hills, which range from central and southern Yucatán into the northern parts of Campeche, there is little
topographic variation in the northern lowlands.
Southern Maya lowlands
The southern lowlands receive much more rainfall and, climatically, contain
tropical and
sub-tropical zones. Rivers, such as the
Usumacinta and the
Pasion, originate in the highlands and pass through several areas of the southern lowlands. In contrast to the north, there are a number of lakes in the southern lowlands, such as
Lake Petén Itza.
Southern Maya highlands
Unlike the highland regions of central Mexico, the southern Maya highlands are generally cool,
temperate in climate, and covered in thick
vegetation. The eastern portions of the highlands are somewhat drier. The Sierra Madre mountains are
volcanic, and
Tajumulco Volcano, at an elevation of 4,220 m (13,845 ft), is the highest point in Central America. The highlands of Guatemala has a total of 37 volcanoes, four of which are active (
Pacaya,
Santiaguito,
Fuego and
Tacaná). Earthquakes are frequent, and
flooding and
mudslides occur.
Oaxaca
La Mixteca mountain range
The Oaxacan region has been one of the most diverse since the Mesoamerican epoch. It is a completely mountainous territory, marked by the
Sierra Madre del Sur and the Mixteca shield. It includes a portion of the Balsas River basin, characterized by its dryness and complicated geographical relief. Its river beds are shallow and of small capacity. In this sense, it appears much like Central Mexico.
There were two principal scenarios in the cultural history of the Oaxacan people. On the one hand, the central
Valley of Oaxaca saw the development of the
Zapotec culture, one of the most ancient and well known of the Mesoamerican region. This culture was developed by the chiefdoms that controlled the arable land (which was very fertile, albeit dry) of the small valleys of
Etla,
Tlacolula, and
Miahuatlán. Some of the first examples of great architecture in Mesoamerica were in this region, for example, the ceremonial center of San José Mogote. The hegemony of this center in the Valley region passed into the hands of
Monte Albán, the Classic capital of the Zapotec. The fall of Teotihuacán in the 8th century CE permitted the great heights achieved by the Zapotec culture. However, the city of Monte Albán was abandoned in the 10th century CE, and gave way to a series of regional centers that fought among each other for political dominance.
The other principal scenario was that of the Mixtec region, which lies to the west of the Central Valley. The Mixtec region has also been occupied since prehistoric times. It has an extremely mountainous terrain of variable altitude, rising to more than 3000 meters. The climate varies from mountainous and temperate to tropical and dry, and rain is generally scarce. There is little running surface water, and presently, a good part of the area has become alarmingly deforested, a result of the ground-clearing agricultural practices of the ancient inhabitants of the region.
By the Preclassic period there were already important population centers in the region, such as
Yucuita and
Cerro de las Minas. However, the Mixtec capitals did not reach the magnitude of their Zapotec neighbors. The summit of the Mixtec culture was reached in the Postclassic period, when Lord 8 Deer of
Tututepec and
Tilantongo embarked on a campaign of political unification of the Mixtec city-states, and came to occupy the Central Valley of Oaxaca.
Guerrero
Guerrero has traditionally been considered part of Western Mexico. However, recent discoveries have reoriented the divisions of the Mesoamerican cultural areas, and in the works of recent authors, Guerrero is regarded as an independent cultural area. The Guerrero region occupies approximately the area of the southern Mexican state of
the same name. It can be divided into three regions with different characteristics: in the north, the Basin of the
Balsas River, whose current is the defining characteristic of the regional geography. The Balsas Basin is a low-lying region, with a hot climate and scarce rainfall, whose dryness is mitigated by the presence of the Balsas River and its numerous branches. Central Guerrero corresponds to the Sierra Madre del Sur, a region rich in mineral deposits but poor in agricultural potential. Lastly, the southern part of the region consists of the Pacific coast, a wide coastal plain, full of mangroves and palms, battered by hurricanes from the south.
Guerrero was the site of the first pottery traditions in Mesoamerica. The most ancient remains have been found in Puerto Marqués, near
Acapulco, and are about 3500 years old. During the Preclassic period, the Balsas Basin became an area of vital importance for the cultural development of the
Olmec, who left signs of their presence in areas such as
Teopantecuanitlán and the grottos of
Juxtlahuaca. Later came the development of a sculptural tradition known as Mezcala, characterized by its geometrization of the human form. During the Postclassic period, the greater part of Guerrero remained under the domination of the
Mexica, and only the Tlapanec lands of Yopitzinco remained independent.
The West
El Bajío
The Western Region is one of the least known areas of Mesoamerica. It is an extensive region that comprises the slopes of the
Sierra Madre Occidental, a part of the Sierra Madre del Sur y and the middle and lower basin of the
Lerma River. The foothills of the mountain were covered by forests of
pine and
oak, but forestry in the area has reduced its size. The land is suited to cultivation due to its fertility and abundant water resources, especially in the coastal plain of
Sinaloa, the
Bajío, and the
Tarascan Plateau. The climate varies from cold in the mountains, in the east of
Michoacán, to tropical along the coast of
Nayarit.
This region was inhabited by
Uto-Aztecan-speaking peoples, such as the
Cora, the
Huichol, and the
Tepehuano. The incorporation of these peoples into the sphere of Mesoamerican civilization was very gradual, and it is presumed that the first ceramics developed in this region were linked to traditions of the
Andean people of
Ecuador and
Perú. The changes that clearly affected the rest of the region are less observable in the West, and for that reason, the cultural traditions of the Preclassic period, such as those of the Colima, Jalisco and Nayarit, or those of the
Tumbas de Tiro survived well into the Classic period (150-750 CE). The best known of the western societies is the
P'urhépecha, or Tarascan, which rivaled the power of the Mexica during the 15th century CE.
The North
Turquoise, one of the main products of the North of Mesoamerica.
The North of Mesoamerica formed part of the cultural superarea only during the Classic era (150-750 CE), during which
Teotihuacan's apogee, and population growth, favored migration towards the north and commerce with distant
Oasisamerica. The region is flat, compressed between the mountain ranges of the
Sierra Madre Occidental and the
Sierra Madre Oriental. The climate is dry, if not desert-like, with scarce vegetation, for which reason agriculture was only possible through the canalization of surface water currents (especially the
Pánuco River and the Lerma tributaries) and the storage of rain water. The excessive dependence on good weather led the people of the North to abandon the region in the middle of the 8th century after enduring a prolonged drought and invasions of
Aridoamerican people.
The centers of population in the North were dependent on the network of commerce that was established between
Teotihuacan and the Oasisamerican societies. Sites such as
La Quemada in
Zacatecas, and
La Ferrería in
Durango served as forts to guard the commercial routes. When agriculture and the social system collapsed in the North, the occupants of the region migrated towards the West, the Gulf, and the Center of Mexico.
Centroamerica
Lake Nicaragua
The area known as Centroamerica occupies the Pacific coasts of
El Salvador,
Honduras,
Nicaragua, and the
Nicoya Peninsula in
Costa Rica. The climate of this region is tropical, with important geological activity, and includes the great Mediterranean lakes of Central America:
Lake Nicaragua and
Lake Managua. As in the case of the northern region, Centroamerica formed part of the Mesoamerican world only temporarily. It is customary to count the Centroamerican peoples as part of the transition zone between the Andean world and Mesoamerica. Their first contact with the center of Mesoamerica occurred in the Preclassic period, as indicated by the Olmec influence in the area. However, in the Classic period relations were interrupted and Centroamerica received significant cultural influences from the Colombian
Altiplano. The development of metallurgy in Centroamerica, for example, occurred much earlier than in the rest of Mesoamerica. During the Postclassic period, the area was again part of the Mesoamerican sphere, and was invaded by the
Pipil and
Nicarao, both speakers of
Nahuatl, a dialect of the language of the
Mexica.
Sources
1. Dow, James W. 1999. ''The Cultural Anthropology of Middle America'': "Mesoamerica is a sub-area of Middle America ..."
2. OECD. 2006. ''OECD Territorial Reviews: The Mesoamerican Region: Southeastern Mexico and Central America'' (ISBN 92-64-02191-4). Retrieved 24 February 2007.
See also
★
Aridoamerica
★
Oasisamerica
★
Americas
★
Spanish colonization of the Americas
★
Mesoamerica (disambiguation)
★
Middle America (Americas)
★
Central America
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