'Freedom of religion ' is a guarantee by a
government for ''freedom of belief'' for individuals and ''freedom of worship'' for individuals and groups. It is generally recognized to also include the freedom not to follow any religion (
irreligion) and not to believe in any god (
atheism or
agnosticism). 'Religious toleration' is the condition of accepting or permitting others'
religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own. Freedom of religion is considered by many in Western nations to be a fundamental
human right.
The Evolution of Religious Liberty as a Universal Human Right
In a country with a
state religion, ''toleration'' means that the government permits religious practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does not persecute believers in other faiths. In the
Middle Ages, toleration of
Judaism was a contentious issue throughout
Christendom. Today, there are concerns about the persecution of religious minorities in
Islamic states (for example the
persecution of Bahá'ís and the
status of religious freedom in Iran) and in atheistic states such as
China and
North Korea, as well as other forms of intolerance in other countries (for example banning the wearing of prominent religious articles in
Turkey
The Islamic veil across Europe or banning the Quran in United States courts where a Bible is allowed
North Carolina faith leaders supporting Quran oath ) Freedom of religion as a legal concept is related to but not identical with
religious toleration,
separation of church and state, or ''
laïcité'' (a
secular state).
For individuals, religious toleration generally means an attitude of acceptance towards other people's religions. It does not mean that one views other religions as equally true; merely that others have the right to hold and practice their beliefs.
Proselytism can be a contentious issue; it can be regarded as an offense against the validity of others' religions, or as an expression of one's own faith.
The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the 58 Member States of the
United Nations General Assembly on
December 10,
1948, at the
Palais de Chaillot in
Paris,
France defines freedom of religion and belief as follows: ''Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance.''
History
Historically ''freedom of religion'' has been used to refer to the tolerance of different theological systems of belief, while ''freedom of worship'' was defined as freedom of individual action.
During history some countries have accepted some form of freedom of worship, though in actual practice that theoretical freedom was limited through punitive taxation, repressive social legislation, and political disenfranchisement. Compare examples of individual freedom in
Italy or the
Muslim tradition of
dhimmis, literally "protected individuals" professing an officially tolerated non-Muslim religion.
Freedom of religion In Antiquity
In
Antiquity a
syncretic point-of-view often allowed communities of traders to operate under their own customs. When street mobs of separate quarters clashed in a
Hellenistic or
Roman city, the issue was generally perceived to be an infringement of community rights. The Greek-Jewish clashes at
Cyrene provided one example of cosmopolitan cities as scenes of tumult.
Some of the historical exceptions have been in regions where one of the revealed religions has been in a position of power:
Judaism,
Zoroastrianism,
Christianity and
Islam. Others have been where the established order has felt threatened, as shown in the
trial of Socrates or where the ruler has been deified, as in Rome, and refusal to offer token
sacrifice was similar to refusing to take an
oath of allegiance. This was the core for resentment and the
persecution of early Christian communities.
The first declaration of religious freedom was established in the ancient
Persian Empire by its founder
Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC, as stated in his
Cyrus cylinder.
Freedom of religious worship was established in the
Maurya Empire of
ancient India by
Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC, which was encapsulated in the
Edicts of Ashoka:
History of Freedom of Religion in Europe
The
Roman Catholic Church kept a tight rein on religious expression throughout the
Middle Ages. Jews were alternately tolerated and persecuted, the most notable examples of the latter being the expulsion of all Jews and Muslims from Spain in
1492. Some of those who remained and converted were tried as heretics in the
Inquisition for allegedly practicing Judaism in secret. Despite the persecution of Jews, they were the most tolerated non-Catholic faith in Europe.
However, the latter was in part a reaction to the growing movement that became the
Reformation. As early as 1380,
John Wycliffe in England denied
transubstantiation and began his translation of the Bible into English. He was condemned in a
Papal Bull in 1410, and all his books were burned.
In 1414,
Jan Hus, a
Bohemian preacher of reformation, was given a safe conduct by the Holy Roman Emperor to attend the
Council of Constance. Not entirely trusting in his safety, he made his will before he left. His forebodings proved accurate, and he was burned at the stake on
July 6,
1415. The Council also decreed that Wycliffe's remains be disinterred and cast out. This decree was not carried out until 1428.
Martin Luther published his famous 95 Theses in
Wittenberg on
October 31,
1517. His aim was to stop the sale of
indulgences and reform the Church from within, but this was not the result. In 1521, he was given the chance to recant at the
Diet of Worms before
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, then only 19. After he refused to recant, he was declared heretic. Partly for his own protection, he was sequestered on the
Wartburg in the possessions of
Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, where he translated the
New Testament into German. He was excommunicated by Papal Bull in 1521.
The
Protestant movement, however, continued to gain ground in his absence and spread to
Switzerland.
Ulrich Zwingli preached reform in
Zürich from 1520 to 1523. He opposed the sale of indulgences, celibacy, pilgrimages, pictures, statues, relics, altars, and organs. This culminated in outright war between the Swiss
cantons that accepted Protestantism and the Catholics. The Catholics were victorious, and Zwingli was killed in battle in 1531. The Catholic cantons were magnanimous in victory.
In the meantime, in Germany
Philip Melanchthon drafted the
Augsburg Confession as a common confession for the Lutherans and the free territores. It was presented to Charles V in 1530.
The defiance of Papal authority proved contagious, and in 1533, when
Henry VIII of England was excommunicated for his divorce and remarriage to Anne Boleyn, he promptly established a state church with bishops appointed by the crown. This was not without internal opposition, and
Thomas More, who had been his prime minister, was executed in 1535 for opposition to Henry.
In 1535, the Swiss canton of
Geneva became Protestant, but the Protestants often proved as intolerant of differences of opinion as the Catholics. In 1536, the
Bernese imposed the reformation on the canton of
Vaud by conquest. They sacked the cathedral in
Lausanne and destroyed all its art and statuary.
John Calvin, who had been active in Geneva was expelled in 1538 in a power struggle, but he was invited back in 1540.
The same kind of seesaw back and forth between Protestantism and Catholicism was evident in England when
Mary I of England returned that country briefly to the Catholic fold in 1553. However, her half-sister,
Elizabeth I of England was to restore the
Church of England in 1558, this time permanently. The
King James Bible commissioned by King
James I of England and published in 1611 proved a landmark for Protestant worship.
However, intolerance of dissident forms of Protestantism continued, as evidenced by the exodus of the
Pilgrims who sought refuge, first in
Holland, and ultimately in America, founding the
Plymouth Colony in
Massachusetts in 1620.
William Penn, the founder of
Philadelphia was involved in a case which had a profound effect upon future American law and those of England. In a classic case of
jury nullification the jury refused to convict William Penn of preaching a
Quaker sermon, which was illegal. Even though the jury was imprisoned for their acquittal, they stood by their decision and helped establish the freedom of religion.
In the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V agreed to tolerate Lutheranism in 1555 at the
Peace of Augsburg. Each state was to take the religion of its prince, but within those states, there was not necessarily religious tolerance. Citizens of other faiths could relocate to a more hospitable environment.
In
1558, the
Transylvanian
Diet of
Turda declared free practice of both the
Catholic and
Lutheran religions, but prohibited
Calvinism. Ten years later, in
1568 the Diet extended the freedom to all religions, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion". The Edict of Turda is considered by mostly Hungarian historians as the first legal guarantee of religious freedom in the Christian Europe.
In France, although peace was made between Protestants and Catholics at the
Treaty of Saint Germain in 1570, persecution continued, most notably in the
Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day on
August 24,
1572, in which many Protestants throughout France were killed. It was not until the converted Protestant prince
Henry IV of France came to the throne that religious tolerance was formalized in the
Edict of Nantes in 1598. It would remain in force for over 80 years until its revocation in 1685 by
Louis XIV of France. Intolerance remained the norm until the
French Revolution, when state religion was abolished and all Church property confiscated.
In
1573, the
Warsaw Confederation formalized in the newly formed
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the freedom of religion that had a long tradition in the
Kingdom of Poland.
History of Freedom of Religion in the United States
: ''See also:
Freedom of Religion in the United States''
The early colonies, although many of them were founded as a result of religious persecution, were not tolerant of dissident forms of worship. For example,
Roger Williams found it necessary to found a new colony in
Rhode Island to escape persecution in the theocratically dominated colony of Massachusetts.
It was not until the 18th century that
Enlightenment concepts of freedom of individual worship gained ground both in Europe and America.
"Save Freedom of Worship". American World War II poster
The modern legal concept of religious freedom as the union of ''freedom of belief'' and ''freedom of worship'' with the absence of any state-sponsored religion, originated in the
United States of America.
This issue was addressed by
Thomas Paine in his pamphlet,
''Common Sense'' (1776):
: ''"As to religion, I hold it to be the indispensable duty of all government, to protect all conscientious professors thereof, and I know of no other business which government hath to do therewith…''
The
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was written in
1779 by
Thomas Jefferson. It proclaimed:
: ''"[N]o man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer, on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities." ''
History of Freedom of Religion in Asia
Freedom of religion in the
Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi (304 B.C to 232 B.C) (
Asoka). One of King Asoka's main concern was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a
just and humane society. Later, he promoted the principles of
Buddhism and the creation of a just, understanding and fair society was held as an important principle for many ancient rulers of this time in the East.
The importance of
freedom of worship in India was encapsulated in an inscription of
Asoka:
Religious freedom and the right to worship freely was a practice that had been appreciated and promoted by most ancient India dynasties. This had been the underlying attitude of most rulers of
India since this period from before 300 B.C. until 1200 AD. The initial entry of
Islam into
South Asia came in the first century after the death of the Prophet
Muhammad. When around 1210 AD the
Islamic Sultanates invaded India from the north-east, gradually the principle of freedom of religion deteriorated in this part of the world. They were subsequently replaced by another
Islamic invader in the form of
Babur. The
Mughal empire was founded by the Mongol leader
Babur in 1526, when he defeated
Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the
Delhi Sultans at the
First Battle of Panipat. The word "Mughal" is the Indo-Iranian version of
Mongol.
Contemporary Debates
The contemporary idea of religious freedom as a human right remains a contested topic. The major areas of debate are listed below.
Islam
Some Islamic theologians quote the
Quran ("There is no compulsion in religion," Sura 2:256) to show scriptural support for religious freedom. However, other verses and the Hadith mandate severe treatment for unbelievers, which is reflected in the high levels of intolerance shown in many contemporary Islamic societies.
In
Iran, the constitution recognizes four religions whose status is formally protected: Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
[1] The constitution, however, also set the groundwork for the institutionalized
persecution of Bahá'ís,
[2] who have been subjected to arrests, beatings, executions, confiscation and destruction of property, and the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education.
1 In
Egypt, a
16 December,
2006 judgement of the
Supreme Administrative Council created a clear demarcation between recognized religions — Islam, Christianity and Judaism — and all other religious beliefs;
[3][4] no other religious affiliation is officially admissible.
[5] The ruling leaves members of other religious communities, including Bahá'ís, without the ability to obtain the necessary government documents to have rights in their country, essentially denying them of all rights of citizenship.
5 They cannot obtain ID cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, and passports; they also cannot be employed, educated, treated in public hospitals or vote among other things.
5 See
Egyptian identification card controversy.
Christianity
Most Christians - whether Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant or other - support religious freedoms. The
Roman Catholic Church affirmed religious freedom for all in the
Second Vatican Council Declaration ''
Dignitatis Humanae''. This was itself inspired by the work of the
Jesuit theologian
John Courtney Murray. Some Orthodox Christians, especially those living in
democratic countries, support religious freedom for all, as evidenced by the position of the
Ecumenical Patriarchate. Many Protestant Christian churches, including some
Baptists,
Churches of Christ and the
Seventh-day Adventist Church and
main line churches have a commitment to religious freedoms. The Mormons (
Latter-Day Saints) also affirm religious freedom.
However others such as African scholar Makau Mutua have argued that Christian insistence on the propagation of their faith to native cultures as an element of religious freedom has resulted in a corresponding denial of religious freedom to native traditions and led to their destruction. As he states in the book produced by the Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief -- "Imperial religions have necessarily violated individual conscience and the communal expressions of Africans and their communities by subverting African religions."
[6]
"Right to Change" or "Propagation" of religion
Among the most contentious areas of religious freedom is the "Right to Change" one's religion.
Other debates have centered around restricting certain kinds of missionary activity by
religions. Many Islamic states, and others such as China, severely restrict missionary activities of other religions.
Greece, among European countries, has generally looked unfavorably on missionary activities of denominations others than the majority church and proselytizing is constitutionally prohibited.
[7]
A different kind of critique of the freedom to propagate religion has come from non-Abrahamic traditions such as the African and Indian. African scholar
Makau Mutua criticizes religious evangelism on the ground of cultural annihilation by what he calls "proselytizing universalist faiths."
[8]
Some Indian scholars have similarly argued that the right to propagate religion is not culturally or religiously neutral.
[9]
In
Sri Lanka there have been debates regarding a bill on religious freedom that seeks to protect indigenous religious traditions from certain kinds of missionary activities. Debates have also occurred in various states of
India regarding similar laws, particularly those that restrict conversions using force, fraud or allurement.
Religious Practice vs. Secular Law
Religious practice may also conflict with secular law creating debates on religious freedom. For instance, even though
polygamy is permitted in Islam it is prohibited in secular law in many Western countries. Does prohibiting polygamy then curtail the religious freedom of Muslims? The USA and India, for instance, have taken two different views of this. In India, polygamy is permitted, but only for Muslims, under Muslim Personal Law. In the USA, polygamy is prohibited for all. This was a major source of conflict between the early
Mormon Church and the United States until the Church finally amended its position on polygamy.
Similar issues have also arisen in the context of the religious use of
psychedelic substances by Native American tribes in the United States as well as other Native practices.
See also:
★
History of India
★
Maurya Empire
★
Ashoka
★
Islamic empires in India
★
Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadar
★
Sikh Confederacy
International law
In International law the freedom of
religion and belief is protected by the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). This protection extends to those professing belief in no religion which includes
Humanist,
atheist,
rationalist, and
agnostic beliefs.
Religious freedom and foreign relations of the United States
The United States formally considers religious freedom in its foreign relations. The
International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 established the
United States Commission on International Religious Freedom which investigates the records of over 200 other nations with respect to religious freedom, and makes recommendations to submit nations with egregious records to ongoing scrutiny and possible economic sanctions. Many human rights organizations have urged the United States to be still more vigorous in imposing sanctions on countries that do not permit or tolerate religious freedom.
Some critics charge that the United States policy on religious freedom is largely directed towards the rights of Christians, particularly the ability for Christian missionaries to evangelize, in other countries.
Timeline
★
313-
Constantine I becomes the first Christian Emperor and ends persecution of Christians in
The Roman Empire
★
1549 - first English
Act of Uniformity
★
1571,
January 11 - religious toleration was granted to Austrian nobles;
★
1573,
January 28 -
Warsaw Confederation granting religious toleration;
★
1598,
April 13 - King
Henry IV of France issued the
Edict of Nantes, allowing religious toleration of the
Huguenots;
★
1609,
July 6 -
Bohemia was granted religious toleration;
★
1657,
April 20 -
New Amsterdam granted religious toleration to
Jews;
★
1685, October - the
Edict of Fontainebleau was issued, revoking the Edict of Nantes and making Protestantism illegal in France.
★
1689,
Act of Toleration - England
★
1791,
1st amendment to
US Constitution instituted
separation of church and state in the US;
★
1829,
April 13 -
British Parliament granted
Catholic Emancipation in the spirit of religious toleration;
★
1864 - In the ''
Syllabus of Errors'',
Pope Pius IX condemned as an error the belief that "[e]very man is free to embrace and profess that religion which, guided by the light of reason, he shall consider true." (Pope Pius IX. (1864). Allocution "Maxima quidem," June 9, 1862; Damnatio "Multiplices inter," June 10, 1851.
★
1988,
April 29 - in the spirit of
Glasnost,
Soviet Union leader
Mikhail Gorbachev promised increased religious toleration.
Literature
★
Law and Religion, , Gad, Barzilai, Ashgate, , ISBN 978-0-7546-2494-3 .
★
Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism, , Chris, Beneke, Oxford University Press, USA, , ISBN 0-19-530555-8 .
★
Church and State in America to the Passage of the First Amendment, , Thomas J., Curry, Oxford University Press; Reprint edition (December 19, 1989), , ISBN 0-19-505181-5 .
★ Frost, J. William (1990) ''A Perfect Freedom: Religious Liberty in Pennsylvania'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press).
★ Gaustad, Edwin S. (2004, 2nd ed.) ''Faith of the Founders: Religion and the New Nation, 1776-1826'' (Waco: Baylor University Press).
★
God vs. the Gavel : Religion and the Rule of Law, , Marci A., Hamilton, Cambridge University Press, , ISBN 0-521-85304-4 .
★
Necessary Virtue: The Pragmatic Origins of Religious Liberty in New England, , Charles P., Hanson, University Press of Virginia, 1998, ISBN 0813917948 .
★ Hasson, Kevin 'Seamus' , ''The Right to be Wrong : Ending the Culture War Over Religion in America'', Encounter Books, 2005, ISBN 1-59403-083-9
★ McLoughlin, William G. (1971) ''New England Dissent: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State'', 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).
★
Conscience and Community: Revisiting Toleration and Religious Dissent in Early Modern England and America, , Andrew R., Murphy, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-271-02105-5 .
★
Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief, A Deskbook, , Makau, Mutua, Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief, 2004,
★ Stokes, Anson Phelps (1950) ''Church and State in the United States, Historic Development and Contemporary Problems of Religious Freedom under the Constitution,'' 3 Volumes (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers).
★ Stokes, DaShanne (In Press).
Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom
★ Associated Press (2002).
Appeals court upholds man's use of eagle feathers for religious practices
★
American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978)
★
Policy Concerning Distribution of Eagle Feathers for Native American Religious
References
1. Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran International Federation for Human Rights
2. A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Baha'is of Iran Iran Human Rights Documentation Center
3. Egypt's Bahais denied citizenship rights
4. Court denies Bahai couple document IDs
5. Rendered faithless and stateless
6. Mutua, Makau. 2004. Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief, A Deskbook. Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief.
7. US State Department report on Greece
8. Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief, A Deskbook, , Makau, Mutua, Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief, 2004,
9.
The Conversion War and Religious Freedom
See also
★
Separation of church and state
★
Status of religious freedom by country
★
State religion
★
Religious toleration
★
Anarchism and religion
★
Christian anarchism
★
Dignitatis Humanae
★
Forum 18
★
Freedom of thought
★
Flushing Remonstrance
★
John Courtney Murray
★
Warsaw Confederation (1573)
External links
★
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (in particular Article 18) from the Human Rights Library
★
The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of “Religion” in International Law Harvard Human Rights Journal article from the President and Fellows of Harvard College(2003)
★
Human Rights Brief No. 3, Freedom Of Religion and Belief Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC)
★
Forum 18 News Service - Reports, country surveys and commentaries from
Forum 18, a Norwegian international religious freedom news service
★
''Vindicated by Time: The Niyogi Committee Report On Christian Missionary Activities'': vol I.3 chapter I
★
U.S. State Department country reports
★
2006 Annual Report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom
★
Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau
★
The Interfaith Alliance
★
Religious Liberty: The legal framework in selected OSCE countries.
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