Foods from plant sources
'Food' is any substance, usually composed primarily of
carbohydrates,
fats, water and/or
proteins, that can be
eaten or
drunk by an animal or human being for
nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like
alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most cultures use
farming,
ranching, and
fishing, with hunting,
foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.
Most
traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as
gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption.
Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food
habits. While humans are
omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with
foodborne illness claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used
metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".
Food sources
Almost all foods are of plant or
animal origin, although there are some exceptions. Foods not coming from animal or
plant sources include various edible
fungi, including
mushrooms.
Fungi and ambient
bacteria are used in the preparation of
fermented and
pickled foods such as leavened
bread,
wine,
beer,
cheese,
pickles, and
yogurt. Many cultures eat
seaweed, which is a
protist, or
blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) such as
Spirulina.
[1] Additionally,
salt is often eaten as a flavoring or preservative, and
baking soda is used in food preparation. Both of these are
inorganic substances, as is
water, an important part of human diet.
Plants
A variety of foods from plant sources
Many
plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct
cultivars.
[2] Plant-based foods can be classified as with the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth. Because of this, seeds are often packed with energy, and are good sources of food for animals, including humans. In fact, the majority of all foods consumed by human beings are seeds. These include
cereals (such as maize,
wheat, and
rice),
legumes (such as
beans,
peas, and
lentils), and
nuts.
Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils, including
sunflower,
rape (including
canola oil), and
sesame.
[McGee, Chapter 9.]
Fruits are the ripened extensions of plants, including the seeds within. Fruits are made attractive to animals so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds over long distances. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some fruits, such as pumpkin and eggplant, are eaten as vegetables.
[3] (For more information, see
list of fruits.)
Vegetables are a second type of plant matter eaten as food. These include
root vegetables (such as
potatoes and
carrots),
leaf vegetables (such as
spinach and
lettuce), (such as
bamboo shoots and
asparagus), and (such as
globe artichokes and
broccoli). Many
herbs and spices are highly-flavorful vegetables.
[4]
Animals
Various raw meats
Animals can be used as food either directly, or indirectly by the products they produce.
Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from either
muscle systems or from
organs. Food products produced by animals include
milk produced by
Mammals, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into
dairy products such as
cheese or
butter. In addition birds and other animals lay
eggs, which are often eaten, and
bees produce
honey, a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures
consume blood, some in the form of
blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a
cured salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as
civet.
[5]
Production
Main articles: Agriculture
Food is traditionally obtained through
farming,
ranching, and
fishing, with
hunting,
foraging and other
methods of subsistence locally important. More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more
sustainable agricultural practices. This approach, which is partly fueled by
consumer demand, encourages
biodiversity, local self-reliance and
organic farming methods.
[6] Major influences on food production are international organizations, (e.g. the
World Trade Organization and
Common Agricultural Policy), national government policy (or
law), and
war.
[7]
Preparation
While some food can be eaten raw, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or
flavor. At the simplest level this may involve
washing,
cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as
spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling,
pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a
kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the
taste or
aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to
preserve the food; and others may be involved in cultural identity. A
meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.
[8]
Animal slaughter and butchering
Workers and cattle in a slaughterhouse.
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve
slaughter,
evisceration, hanging, portioning and
rendering. In developed countries, this is usually done outside the home in
slaughterhouses which are used to process animals en mass for meat production. Many countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example the
United States has established the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as
kosher shechita and dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations of
kashrut require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is cut.
[9]
On the local level a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts and pre-wrapped for commercial sale or wrapped to order in
butcher paper. In addition fish and
seafood may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a
fish monger at the local level. However fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-froze for preservation of quality.
[10]
Cooking
Main articles: Cooking
Chef Preparing Food
The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of
ingredients to improve the flavor or
digestibility of food. Cooking technique, known as
culinary art, generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions,
tools, and the skill of the individual cooking.
[11] The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it.
[12]
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always,
chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor,
texture, appearance, and nutritional properties.
[13] Cooking proper, as opposed to roasting, requires the boiling of water in a container, and was practiced at least since the
10th millennium BC with the introduction of
pottery.
[14] There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at
Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years ago.
[15]
Cooking equipment and methods
There are many types of cooking equipment used for cooking.
Ovens are one type of cooking equipment which can be used for baking or roasting and offer a dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use different types of
ovens, for example Indian culture uses a
Tandoor oven is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high temperature,
[16] while western
kitchens will use variable temperature
convection ovens, conventional ovens,
toaster ovens in addition to non-radiant heat ovens like the
microwave oven. Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired.
[17]
.jpg)
A stainless steel frying pan.
Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same variations of fuel types as the ovens mentioned above. cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat source, such as a
sauté pan, sauce pot,
frying pan,
pressure cooker, etc. These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and include methods such as
steaming,
simmering,
boiling, and
poaching for moist methods; while the dry methods include
sautéing,
pan frying, or
deep-frying.
[18]
Traditional asado
In addition, many cultures use grills for
cooking. A
grill operates with a radiant heat source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. An open bit barbecue in the American south is one example along with the American style outdoor grill fueled by
wood, liquid
propane or
charcoal along with soaked wood chips for smoking.
[19]. A
Mexican style of barbecue is called
barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meats and whole sheep over open fire. In
Argentinia,
asado is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire made upon the ground, on which a whole animal is grilled or in other cases smaller cuts of the animal.
[20]
Raw food
Many types of sushi ready to be eaten.
Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state.
Sushi in
Japan is one such
cuisine that features raw sliced
fish, either in
sashimi, nigiri, or maki styles.
[21] Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon respectively, mixed with various ingredients and served with
baguette,
brioche or
frites.
[22] In Italy,
carpaccio is a dish of very thin sliced raw
beef, drizzled with a
vinaigrette made with olive oil.
[23] A popular health food movement known as
raw foodism promotes a mostly
vegan diet of raw
fruits,
vegetables and
grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehydration, not passing the 118 degree mark, and sprouting.
[24]
Restaurants
Many cultures produce food for sale in restaurants for paying customers. These restaurants often have trained
chefs who prepare the food, while trained waitstaff serve the customers. The term
restaurant is credited to the
French from the 19th century, as it relates to the restorative nature of the bullions that were once served in them. However, the concept pre-dates the naming of these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food preparation may have existed during the age of the city of
Pompeii, as well as an urban sales of prepared foods in
China during the
Song Dynasty. The
coffee shops or
cafes of 17th century
Europe may also be considered an early version of the restaurant.
[25] In 2005 the United States spent $496 billion annually for out-of-home dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining was as follows, 40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (
fast food), 4.7% in
hotels and
motels, 6.6% in
schools or
colleges, 5.4% in bars and
vending machines, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in other which includes
military bases.
[26]
Food manufacture
Packaged household food items
Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple as a
butcher preparing meat, or as complex as a modern international
food industry. Early food processing techniques were limited by available food preservation, packaging and
transportation. This mainly involved
salting,
curing, curdling,
drying,
pickling,
fermentation and
smoking.
[27] During the
industrialization era in the 19th century, food manufacturing arose.
[28] This development took advantage of new
mass markets and emerging new technology, such as
milling, preservation,
packaging and
labeling and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ
domestic servants.
[Jango-Cohen]
At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food
brands. There also exists a wide array of small local or national food processing companies.
[29] Advanced
technologies have also come to change food manufacture.
Computer-based
control systems, sophisticated
processing and
packaging methods, and
logistics and
distribution advances, can enhance product
quality, improve
food safety, and reduce costs.
Commercial trade
International exports and imports
Food imports in 2005
reported that the EU was the top food importer in 2005 followed at a distance by the USA and Japan. Food is now
traded and marketed on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing
season.
[30] Between 1961 and 1999 there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food
exports.
[31] Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.
[32]
In 1994 over 100 countries became signatories to the
Uruguay Round of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in a dramatic increase in
trade liberalization. This included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers, underpinned by the
WTO enforcement of
agricultural subsidy,
tariffs, import
quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved.
[33] Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the
Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world food trade.
[34]
Marketing and retailing
Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of activities that brings food from "farm gate to plate."
[35] The marketing of even a single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and companies. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one
can of chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and manufacture cans.
[36] The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States.
In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local
village market place. Here food was sold to
grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local consumers.
[12] With the onset of industrialization, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be
counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.
[12][39]
In the 20th century
supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a
self service approach to shopping using
shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through
economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast
warehouse-sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.
[40]
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large
companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than ten percent of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to
advertising,
transportation, and intermediate corporations.
[41]
Famine and hunger
Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately
starvation. This is often connected with
famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality.
Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.
7
Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes.
[42] Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in
Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using
famine scales.
[43]
Food aid
Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer required.
[44] Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of food aid dependence can develop.
[45] Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of the destination country, a strategy known as
food politics. Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain types of food be purchased from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhance the markets of donor countries.
[46] International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are often co-ordinated by the
World Food Programme.
[47]
Safety
Salmonella bacteria is a common cause of foodborne illness, particularly in undercooked chicken and chicken eggs
, commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by
bacteria,
toxins,
viruses,
parasites, and
prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version.
[National Institute of Health, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia] The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Flowchart
has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates.
[48] The sale of
rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of
hygiene, refrigeration, and
vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing
bacteria using
heat and other
microbiological studies by scientists such as
Louis Pasteur contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of
Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern
food storage and
food preservation methods.
[49] In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (
HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks.
[50]
Allergies
Main articles: food allergy
Some people have
allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's
immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy.
[National Institute of Health] The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are
gluten,
corn,
shellfish (mollusks),
peanuts, and
soy.
Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as
diarrhea,
rashes, bloating,
vomiting, and
regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the
allergen.
Rarely, food allergies can lead to a
medical emergency, such as
anaphylactic shock,
hypotension (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is
peanut, although
latex products can induce similar reactions.
Initial treatment is with
epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an
Epi-pen.
[51]
Diet
Main articles: Diet (nutrition)
Cultural and religious diets
Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat.
[Wansink, ''] Although humans are omnivores, many cultures hold some food preferences and some food
taboos. Dietary choices can also define cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only
kosher foods are permitted by
Judaism, and
halal/
haram foods by
Islam, in the diet of believers.
[52] In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's
cuisine.
Children in this photograph from a Nigerian orphanage show symptoms of malnutrition, with four illustrating the gray-blond hair symptomatic of kwashiorkor.
Diet deficiencies
Dietary habits play a significant role in the
health and
mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of
adipose tissue, known as body fat.
[53] Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to
diseases which can have far-reaching effects on health. For instance, 30% of the world's population either has, or is at risk for developing,
Iodine deficiency.
[54] It is estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to
vitamin A deficiency.
[55] Vitamin C deficiency results in
scurvy.
[56] Calcium,
Vitamin D and
phosphorus are inter-related; the consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others.
Kwashiorkor and
marasmus are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.
[57]
Moral, ethical, and health conscious diet
Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance
vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and
antioxidants.
[58] Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing
heart disease,
diabetes, and many other diseases.
[59] More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from
genetically modified food.
[60] Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming on
animal welfare, human health and the
environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a
counterculture with a preference for
organic and
local food.
[61]
Nutrition
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from
starvation or
malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as
scurvy,
obesity or
osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the
minerals and
vitamins. Additionally food contains water and
dietary fiber.
Legal definition
Some countries list a legal definition of food. These countries list food as any item that is to be processed, partially processed or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of items included as foodstuffs include any substance, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by
humans. In addition to these foodstuffs
drink,
chewing gum,
water or other items processed into said food items are part of the legal definition of food. Items not included in the legal definition of food include
animal feed, live animals unless being prepared for sale in a
market, plants prior to
harvesting, medicinal products,
cosmetics,
tobacco and tobacco products,
narcotic or
psychotropic substances, and residues and
contaminants.
[62]
See also
★
★
Optimal foraging theory
Notes
1. McGee, 333-334.
2. McGee ,253.
3. McGee, Chapter 7.
4. McGee, Chapter 6.
5. Davidson, 81-82.
6. Mason
7. Messer, 53-91.
8. Mead, 11-19
9. McGee, 142-143.
10. McGee, 202-206
11. McGee Chapter 14.
12. Mead, 11-19.
13. McGee
14. McGee, 784.
15. Campbell, 312.
16. Davidson, 782-783
17. McGee, 539,784.
18. McGee, 771-791
19. Davidson, 356.
20. Asado Argentina
21. Davidson, 772.
22. Davidson, 786-787.
23. Robuchon, 224.
24. Davidson, 656
25. Davidson, 660-661.
26. United States Department of Agriculture
27. Aguilera, 1-3.
28. Miguel, 3.
29. Hannaford
30. The Economic Research Service of the USDA
31. Regmi
32. CIA World Factbook
33. World Trade Organization, The Uruguay Round
34. Van den Bossche
35. Wansink, ''Marketing Nutrition,'' 501-3.
36. Smith, 501-3.
37. Mead, 11-19.
38. Mead, 11-19.
39. Benson
40. Humphery
41. Magdoff, Fred (Ed.) "[T]he farmer's share of the food dollar (after paying for input costs) has steadily declined from about 40 percent in 1910 to less than 10 percent in 1990."
42. World Health Organization
43. Howe, 353-372
44. World Food Programme
45. Shah
46. Kripke
47. United Nations World Food program
48. Hippocrates, .
49. Magner, 243-498
50. USDA
51. About Epipen, Epipen.com
52. Simoons
53. Nicklas
54. Merson, 245
55. Merson, 231.
56. Merson, 464.
57. Merson, 224.
58. Carpenter
59. Merson, 266-268.
60. Parekh,187-206.
61. Schor
62. United Kingdom Office of Public Sector Information
|
|
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