'Flamenco' is a Spanish musical genre with strong, rhythmic undertones, and is often accompanied with a similarly impassioned style of dance involving vigorous movements, such as hand-clapping and foot-stamping. Flamenco embodies a complex musical and cultural tradition. Although considered part of the culture of
Spain in general, flamenco actually originates from one region —
Andalusia. However, other areas, mainly
Extremadura and
Murcia, have contributed to the development of several flamenco musical forms, and a great number of renowned flamenco artists have been born in other territories of the state. The roots of flamenco are not precisely known, but it is generally acknowledged that flamenco grew out of the unique interplay of native
Andalusian,
Islamic,
Sephardic, and
Gypsy cultures that existed in Andalusia prior to and after the
Reconquest.
Latin American and especially
Cuban influences have also been important in shaping several flamenco
musical forms.
Once the seeds of flamenco were planted in Andalusia, it grew as a separate subculture, first centered in the provinces of
Seville,
Cádiz and part of
Málaga —the area known as ''Baja Andalucía'' (Lower Andalusia) — but soon spreading to the rest of Andalusia, incorporating and transforming local folk music forms. As the popularity of flamenco extended to other areas, other local Spanish musical traditions (i.e. the
Castilian traditional music) would also influence, and be influenced by, the traditional flamenco styles.
Overview
Many of the details of the development of flamenco are lost in
Spanish history. There are several reasons for this lack of historical evidence:
★ Flamenco sprang from the lower levels of Andalusian society, and thus lacked the prestige of art forms among the middle and higher classes. Flamenco music also slipped in and out of fashion several times during its existence. Many of the songs in flamenco still reflect the spirit of desperation, struggle, hope, and pride of the people during this time of persecution.
★ The turbulent times of the people involved in flamenco culture. The
Moors, the
Gitanos and the
Jews were all
persecuted and the
Moors (
moriscos) and
Jews were
expelled by the
Spanish Inquisition in 1492.
★ The Gitanos have been fundamental in maintaining this art form, but they have an
oral culture. Their
folk songs were passed on to new generations by repeated performances in their social community. The non-gypsy Andalusian poorer classes, in general, were also illiterate.
★ Lack of interest from historians and musicologists. "Flamencologists" have usually been flamenco
connoisseurs of diverse professions (a high number of them, like Félix Grande, Caballero Bonald or Ricardo Molina, have been poets), with no specific academic training in the fields of history or musicology. They have tended to rely on a limited number of sources (mainly the writings of
19th century folklorist Demófilo,
[1] notes by foreign travellers like
George Borrow, a few accounts by writers and the
oral tradition), and they have often ignored other data. Nationalistic or ethnic bias has also been frequent in flamencology. This started to change in the
1980s, when flamenco slowly started to be included in music conservatories, and a growing number of musicologists and historians began to carry out more rigorous research. Since then, some new data have shed new light on it. (Ríos Ruiz, 1997:14)
There are questions not only about the origins of the music and dances of flamenco, but also about the origins of the very word ''flamenco''. Whatever the origins of the word, in the early 19th century it began to be used to describe a way of life centered around this music and usually involving Gypsies (in his 1842 book "Zincali," George Borrow writes that the word ''flemenc'' [sic] is synonymous with "Gypsy").
Blas Infante, in his book ''Orígenes de lo flamenco y secreto del cante jondo'', controversially argued that the word ''flamenco'' comes from Hispano-
Arabic word ''fellahmengu,'' which would mean "expelled peasant"
[2]. Yet there is a problem with this theory, in that the word is first attested three centuries after the end of the Moorish reign. Infante links the term to the ethnic Andalusians of
Muslim faith, the
Moriscos, who would have mixed with the Gypsy newcomers in order to avoid religious persecution. Other hypotheses concerning the term's etymology include connections with
Flanders (''flamenco'' also means
Flemish in Spanish), believed by Spanish people to be the origin of the Gypsies, or the ''flameante'' (arduous) execution by the performers, or the
flamingos.
[3].
Background
For a complete picture of the possible influences that gave rise to flamenco, attention must be paid to the cultural and musical background of the
Iberian Peninsula since Ancient times. Long before the
Moorish invasion in 711,
Visigothic Spain had adopted its own liturgic musical forms, the Visigothic or
Mozarabic rite, strongly influenced by
Byzantium. The Mozarabic rite survived the
Gregorian reform and the Moorish invasion, and remained alive at least until the 10th or 11th century. Some theories, started by Spanish classical musician
Manuel de Falla, link the melismatic forms and the presence of Greek
Dorian mode (in modern times called “
Phrygian mode”) in flamenco to the long existence of this separate Catholic rite. Unfortunately, owing to the type of musical notation in which these Mozarabic chants were written, it is not possible to determine what this music really sounded like, so the theory remains unproven.
Moor is not the same as Moslem. Moor comes from the Latin Mauroi, meaning an inhabitant of North Africa. The Carthaginians, for instance, came from North Africa. Moorish influence in the peninsula goes back thousands of years, but it was the Islamic invasion, by largely
Berber armies in
711, that determined the main musical influences from North Africa. They called the Iberian Peninsula
Al-Andalus, from which the name of
Andalusia derives. The Moorish and Arab conquerors brought their musical forms to the Peninsula, and at the same time, probably gathered some native influence in their music. The Emirate, and later
Caliphate of Córdoba became a center of influence in both the
Muslim and
Christian worlds and it attracted musicians from all Islamic countries. One of those musicians was
Zyriab, who imported forms of the
Persian music, revolutionized the shape and playing techniques of the
Lute (which centuries later evolved into the
vihuela and the
guitar), adding a fifth string to it, and set the foundations for the
Andalusian nuba, the style of music in
suite form still performed in
North African countries.
The presence of the Moors was also decisive in shaping the cultural diversity of Spain. Owing to the extraordinary length of the
Reconquest started in the North as early as
722 and completed in
1492 with the conquest of
Granada, the degree of Moorish influence on culture, customs and even language varies enormously between the North and the South. Music cannot have been alien to that process. While music in the North of the Peninsula has a clear Celtic influence which dates to pre-Roman times, Southern music is certainly reminiscent of Eastern influences. To what extent this Eastern flavour is owed to the Moors, the Jews, the Mozarabic rite (with its
Byzantine influence), or the Gypsies has not been clearly determined.
During the Reconquest, another important cultural influence was present in Al-Andalus: the Jews. Enjoying a relative religious and ethnic tolerance in comparison to Christian countries, they formed an important ethnic group, with their own traditions, rites, and music, and probably reinforced the middle-Eastern element in the culture and music forms of Al-Andalus. Certain flamenco ''
palos'' like the
Peteneras have been attributed a direct Jewish origin (Rossy 1966).
Andalusia after the Reconquest: social environment and implications on music
The
15th century marked a small revolution in the culture and society of Southern Spain. We must highlight the following landmarks, all with future implications on the development of flamenco: first, the arrival of nomad
Gypsies in the
Iberian Peninsula in
1425 (Grande, 2001). Later on, the conquest of
Granada, the discovery of
America and the expulsion of the Jews, all of them in
1492.
In the
13th century, the Christian
Crown of Castile had already conquered most of Andalusia. Although Castilian kings favoured a policy of repopulation of the newly conquered lands with Christians, part of the
Muslim population remained in the areas as a religious and ethnic minority, called ''
mudéjares''.
Granada, the last
Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula, fell in 1492 when the
armies of the
Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and queen
Isabella of Castile invaded this city after about 800 years of Moslem rule. The
Treaty of Granada guaranteed
religious tolerance, and this paved the way for the Moors to
surrender peacefully. Months after, the
Spanish Inquisition used its influence to convince Ferdinand and Isabella, who were political allies of the Church of Rome, to break the
treaty and force the Jews to either
convert to
Christianity or leave Spain. The
Alhambra decree of March 31, 1492 ordered the expulsion of all non-converted Jews from Spain and its territories and possessions by July 31, 1492, on charges that they were trying to convert the Christian population to
Judaism. Some chose to adopt the
Catholic religion (
Conversos), but they often kept their Judaic beliefs privately. For this reason, they were closely watched by the
Spanish Inquisition, and accusations of being false converts often lead them to suffer torture and death.
In 1499, about 50,000 ''Moriscos'' were coerced into taking part in mass
baptism. During the
uprising that followed, people who refused the choices of baptism or
deportation to
Africa were systematically eliminated. What followed was a mass
exodus of Moslems,
Sephardi Jews and ''Gitanos'' from Granada city and the villages into the surrounding
Sierra Nevada mountain region (and its hills) and the
rural country. Many Moslems, now known as ''
Moriscos'', officially converted to Christianism, but kept practising their religion in private and also preserved their language, dress and customs. The ''Moriscos'' rose up on several occasions during the
16th century, and were finally expelled from Spain, their rightful homeland, at the beginning of the
17th century.
The conquest of Andalusia implied a strong penetration of Castilian culture in Andalusia, which surely influenced the music and folklore. The expulsion of the Sephardi Jews and ''Moriscos'' could have led to a weakening of middle-Eastern influence on Andalusian culture. However, during the
15th century groups of
Roma people (gypsies), known as ''
Gitanos'' in Spain, entered the
Iberian Peninsula. At the beginning, they were well-tolerated. The Spanish nobles enjoyed their dances and music, and they were regularly employed to entertain guests at private parties. The Gypsies, therefore, were in touch (at least geographically) with the ''Morisco'' population until the expulsion of the latter in the 16th century. According to some theories, suggested by authors like George Borrow and Blas Infante and supported by other flamenco historians like Mairena and Molina, many ''Moriscos'' even joined the Gypsy nomad tribes and eventually became indistinguishable from them. This has not been proved scientifically. It is generally accepted, however, that the ''
Zambra''
[4] of the Gypsies of Granada, still performed nowadays, is derived from the original Moorish Zambra.
The clash between Gypsies and the Spanish would be manifest by the end of the century. For centuries, the Spanish monarchy tried to force the Gypsies to abandon their language, customs and music. During the ''Reconquista'', tolerance towards Gypsies ended as they were put into ghettos. This isolation helped them retain the purity of their music and dance. In 1782, the Leniency Edict of
Charles III restored some freedoms to the Spanish gypsies. Their music and dance was reintroduced and adopted by the general population of Spain. This resulted in a period of great exploration and evolution within the art form. Nomadic Gypsies became social outcasts and were in many cases the victims of persecution. This is reflected in many lyrics of ''palos'' like ''
seguiriyas'', in which references to hunger, prison and discrimination abound.
The influence of the New World
Recent research has revealed a major influence of
Sub-Saharan African music on flamenco's prehistory. This developed from the music and dance of African slaves held by the Spanish in the
New World. There are 16th and 17th century manuscripts of classical compositions that are possibly based on African folk forms, such as ''
negrillas'', ''
zarambeques'', and ''
chaconas''. We also find mention of the
''fandango indiano'' (''Indiano'' meaning from the
Americas, but not necessarily
Native American). Some critics support the view that the names of flamenco ''palos'', like the
tangos or even the
fandango, are derived from
Bantoid languages[5], and most theories state that the rhythm of the
tangos was imported from Cuba.
It is likely that in that stay in the New World, the fandango picked up dance steps deemed too inappropriate for European tastes. Thus, the dance for fandango, for chacon, and for ''
zarabanda'', were all banned in
Europe at one time or another. References to Gypsy dancers can be found in the lyrics of some of these forms, e.g., the chacon. Indeed, Gypsy dancers are often mentioned in Spanish literary and musical works from the 1500s on. However, the ''zarabandas'' and ''
jácaras'' are the oldest written musical forms in Spain to use the 12-beat
metre as a combination of terciary and binary rhythms. The basic rhythm of the zarabanda and the jácara is '1',2,3,'4',5,6,'7',8,'9',10,'11',12. The ''
soleá'' and the ''
Seguiriya'', are variations on this: they just start the metre in a different beat.
[6]
=== The
18th century: the fandango and the ''Escuela Bolera'' ===
During this period of development, the “
flamenco fiesta” developed. More than just a party where flamenco is performed, the fiesta, either unpaid (reunion) or paid, sometimes lasting for days, has an internal etiquette with a complex set of musical and social rules. In fact, some might argue that the cultural phenomenon of the flamenco fiesta is the basic cultural “unit” of flamenco.
A turning point in flamenco appears to have come about with a change of instruments. In the late 18th Century the favoured guitar became the 6 string single-coursed
guitar which replaced the double-coursed 5 string guitar in popularity. It is the 6 string guitar to which flamenco music is inextricably tied. Flamenco became married to the 6 string guitar.
The rise of flamenco
During the late-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries, flamenco took on a number of unique characteristics which separated it from local folk music and prepared the way to a higher professionalization and technical excellence of flamenco performers, to the diversification of flamenco styles (by gradually incorporating songs derived from folklore or even other sources), and to the popularization of the genre outside Andalusia.
The first time flamenco is mentioned in
literature is in 1774 in the book
Cartas Marruecas by
José Cadalso. During this period, according to some authors, there is little news about flamenco except for a few scattered references from travellers. This led traditional flamencologists, like Molina and Mairena, to call the period of 1780 to 1850 as "The Hermetic Period" or the "private stage of flamenco". According to these flamencologists, flamenco, at this time was something like a private ritual, secretly kept in the Gypsy homes of some towns in the Seville and Cádiz area. This theory started to fall out of favour in the 1990s. José Blas Vega has denied the absence of evidences for this period:
Nowadays, we know that there are hundreds and hundreds of data which allow us to know in detail what flamenco was like from 1760 until 1860, and there we have the document sources: the theatre movement of ''sainetes'' (one-act plays) and ''tonadillas'', the popular songbooks and song sheets, the narrations and descriptions from travellers describing customs, the technical studies of dances and ''toques'', the musical scores, the newspapers, the graphic documents in paintings and engravings; and all of this with no interruptions, in continuous evolution together with the rhythm, the poetic stanzas, and the ambience. (Quoted by Ríos Ruiz 1997)
Álvarez Caballero (1998) goes further, stating that if there are no news about flamenco previous to its late 1780 mentions, it is because flamenco simply did not exist. The whole theory about a ''hermetic stage'' would then be a fantasy, caused by the aura of mystery surrounding Gypsy culture.
There is disagreement as to whether primitive flamenco was accompanied by any instrument or not. For traditional flamencology, flamenco consisted of unaccompanied
singing (''cante''). Later, the songs were
accompanied by
flamenco guitar (''toque''), rhythmic
hand clapping (''palmas''), rhythmic feet stomping (''
zapateado'') and
dance (''baile''). Later theories claim that this is false. While some cante forms are sung unaccompanied (
''a palo seco''), it is likely that other forms were accompanied if and when instruments were available.
19th century writer Estébanez Calderón already described a flamenco ''fiesta'' (party) in which the singing was accompanied not only by guitars, but also
bandurria and
tambourine.
The Golden Age
During the so-called 'Golden Age of Flamenco', between 1869-1910, flamenco music developed rapidly in music cafés called ''cafés cantantes'', a new type of venue with ticketed public performances. This was the beginning of the "café cantante" period. Flamenco was developed here to its definitive form. Flamenco dancers also became the major public attraction in those cafés. Along with the development of flamenco dance, guitar players supporting the dancers increasingly gained a
reputation, and so flamenco guitar as an art form by itself was born. A most important artist in this development was
Silverio Franconetti, a non-Gypsy rob seaman of Italian descent. He is reported to be the first "encyclopedic" singer, that is, the first who was able to sing well in all the ''palos'', instead of specializing on a few of them, as was usual at the time. He opened his own ''café cantante'', where he sang himself or invited other artists to perform, and many other venues of this kind were created in all Andalusia and Spain.
Traditional views on flamenco, starting with
Demófilo have often accused this period as the start of the commercial debasement of flamenco. The traditional flamenco fiesta is crowded if more than 20 people are present. Moreover, there is no telling when a fiesta will begin or end, or assurance that the better artists invited will perform well. And, if they do perform, it may not be until the morning after a fiesta that began the night before. By contrast, the café cantante offered set performances at set hours and top artists were contracted to perform. For some, this professionalization led to commercialism, while for others it stimulated healthy competition and therefore, more creativity and technical proficiency. In fact, most traditional flamenco forms were created or developed during this time or, at least, have been attributed to singers of this period like
El Loco Mateo,
El Nitri,
Rojo el Alpargatero,
Enrique el Mellizo,
Paquirri El Guanté, or
La Serneta, among many others. Some of them were professionals, while others sang only at private gatherings but their songs were learned and divulged by professional singers.
In the 19th century, both flamenco and its association with Gypsies started to become popular throughout Europe, even into
Russia. Composers wrote music and
operas on what they thought were Gypsy-flamenco themes. Any traveler through Spain “had” to see the Gypsies perform flamenco. Spain - often to the chagrin of non-Andalucian Spaniards - became associated with flamenco and Gypsies. This interest was in keeping with the European fascination with folklore during those decades.
In 1922, one of Spain's greatest
writers,
Federico García Lorca, and renowned composer
Manuel de Falla, organised the
Concurso de Cante Jondo, a folk music festival dedicated to ''
cante jondo'' ("deep song"). They did this to stimulate interest in some styles of flamenco, which were falling into oblivion as they were regarded uncommercial and, therefore, not apt the cafés cantante. Two of Lorca's most important
poetic works, ''Poema del Cante Jondo'' and ''Romancero Gitano'', show Lorca's fascination with flamenco and appreciation of Spanish folk culture. However, the initiative was not very influential, and the derivations of fandango and other styles kept gaining popularity while the more difficult styles like
siguiriyas and, especially,
tonás were usually only performed in private parties.
The "Theatrical" period: 1892-1956
The stage after the ''Concurso de Cante Jondo'' in 1922 is known as 'Etapa teatral' (Theatrical period) or 'Ópera flamenca' (Flamenco Opera) period. The name ''Ópera flamenca'' was due to the custom, started by impresario Vedrines to call these shows ''opera'', as opera performances enjoyed lower taxes. The ''cafés cantante'' entered a period of decadence and were gradually replaced by larger venues like theatres or bullrings. This led to an immense popularity of flamenco but, according to traditionalist critics, also caused it to fall victim to commercialism and economic interests. New types of flamenco shown were born, where flamenco was mixed with other music genres and theatre interludes portraying picturesque scenes by Gitanos and Andalusians.
The dominant ''palos'' of this era were the ''personal fandango'', the
cantes de ida y vuelta (songs of Latin American origin) and the song in
bulería style. Personal fandangos were based on Huelva traditional styles with a free rhythm (as a
cante libre) and with a high density of virtuouso variations. The song in bulería style (''Canción por bulerías'') adapted any popular or commercial song to the bulería rhythm. This period also saw the birth of a new genre, sometimes called ''copla andaluza'' (Andalusian
couplet) or ''canción española'' (Spanish song), a type of ballads with influences from
zarzuela, Andalusian folk songs, and flamenco, usually accompanied with orchestra, which enjoyed great popularity and was performed both by flamenco and non-flamenco artists. Owing to its links with flamenco shows, many people consider this genre as "flamenco".
The leading artist at the time was
Pepe Marchena, who sang in a sweet falsetto voice, using spectacular vocal runs reminding of
bel canto coloratura. A whole generation of singers was influenced by him and some of them, like
Pepe Pinto, or
Juan Valderrama also reached immense celebrity. Many classical flamenco singers who had grown with the café cantante fell into oblivion. Others, like
Tomás Pavón or
Aurelio Sellé, found refuge in private parties. The rest adapted (though often did not completely surrender) to the new tastes: they took part in those mass flamenco shows, but kept singing the old styles, although introducing some of the new ones in their repertoire: it is the case of
La Niña de los Peines,
Manolo Caracol,
Manuel Vallejo,
El Carbonerillo and many others.
This period has been considered by the most traditionalist critics as a time of complete commercial debasement. According to them, the
opera flamenca became a "dictatorship" (Álvarez Caballero 1998), where bad ''personal fandangos'' and ''copla andaluza'' practically caused traditional flamenco to disappear. Other critics consider this view to be unbalanced (See Ríos Ruiz 1997:40-43): great figures of traditional cante like
La Niña de los Peines or
Manolo Caracol enjoyed great success, and ''palos'' like
siguiriyas or
soleá were never completely abandoned, not even by the most representative singers of the ''ópera flamenca'' style like Marchena or Valderrama.
Typical singers of the period like Marchena, Valderrama, Pepe Pinto or El Pena, have also been reappraised. Starting with singers like Luis de Córdoba,
Enrique Morente or
Mayte Martín, who recorded songs they created or made popular, a high number of singers started to rescue their repertoire, a CD in homage to Valderrama was recorded, and new generations of singers claim their influence. Critics like Antonio Ortega or Ortiz Nuevo have also vindicated the artists of the ''ópera flamenca'' period.
Musical characteristics
Harmony
Whereas, in Western music, only the
major and
minor modes are explicitly named by composers, (except as an occasional oddity in jazz and classical music)
[7] flamenco has also preserved the
Phrygian mode, commonly "
Dorian mode" by flamencologists, referring to the Greek Dorian mode, and sometimes also "flamenco mode". The reason for preferring the term "Greek Dorian" is that, as in ancient Greek music, flamenco melodies are descending (instead of ascending as in usual Western melodic patterns). Some flamencologists, like Hipólito Rossy (Rossy 1998: 19–36) or guitarist
Manolo Sanlúcar, also consider this flamenco mode as a survival of the old Greek Dorian mode. The rest of the article, however, will use the term "Phrygian" to refer to this mode, as it is the most common denomination in English speaking countries.
The Phrygian mode is in fact the most common in the traditional palos of flamenco music, and it is used for
soleá, most
bulerías,
siguiriyas,
tangos and
tientos, among other ''palos'' (Rossy 1998:82). The flamenco version of this mode contains two frequent
alterations in the 7th and, even more often, the 3rd
degree of the scale: if the scale is played in E Phrygian for example, G and D can be sharp.
Descending E Phrygian scale in flamenco music, with common alterations in parentheses
G sharp is compulsory for the tonic chord. Based on the Phrygian scale, a typical
cadence is formed, usually called “
Andalusian cadence”. The chords for this cadence in E Phrygian are Am–G–F–E. According to guitarist
Manolo Sanlúcar, in this flamenco Phrygian mode, E is the
tonic, F would take the
harmonic function of
dominant, while Am and G assume the functions of
subdominant and
mediant respectively.
[8]
When playing in Phrygian mode, guitarists traditionally use only two basic positions for the
tonic chord (music): E and A. However, they often transport these basic tones by using a
capo. Modern guitarists, starting with
Ramón Montoya, have also introduced other positions. Montoya himself started to use other chords for the tonic in the doric sections of several ''palos'': F
sharp for
tarantas, B for
granaína, A flat for the
minera, and he also created a new ''palo'' as solo piece for the guitar, the
rondeña, in C sharp with
scordatura. Later guitarists have further extended the repertoire of
tonalities, chord positions and scordatura.
[9].
There are also palos in major mode, for example, most
cantiñas and
alegrías,
guajiras, and some
bulerías and
tonás, and the ''cabales'' (a major mode type of
siguiriyas). The minor mode is less frequent and it is restricted to the
Farruca, the milongas (among
cantes de ida y vuelta), and some styles of tangos, bulerías, etc. In general, traditional palos in major and minor mode are limited harmonically to the typical two-chord (tonic–dominant) or three-chord structure (tonic–subdominant–dominant) (Rossy 1998:92). However, modern guitarists have increased the traditional harmony by introducing
chord substitution, transition chords, and even
modulation.
Fandangos and the palos derived from it (e.g.
malagueñas, tarantas,
cartageneras) are bimodal. Guitar introductions are in Phrygian mode, while the singing develops in major mode, modulating to Phrygian mode at the end of the stanza. (Rossy 1998:92)
Traditionally, flamenco guitarists did not receive any formal training, so they just relied on their ear to find the chords on the guitar, disregarding the rules of Western
classical music. This led them to interesting harmonic findings, with unusual unresolved
dissonances (Rossy 1998:88). Examples of this are the use of minor 9th chords for the tonic, the tonic chord of tarantas, or the use of the 1st unpressed string as a kind of
pedal tone.
Melody
Dionisio Preciado, quoted by Sabas de Hoces
[10] established the following characteristics for the melodies of flamenco singing:
#
Microtonality: presence of
intervals smaller than the
semitone.
#
Portamento: frequently, the change from one note to another is done in a smooth transition, rather than using discrete intervals.
#Short
tessitura or
range: The most traditional flamenco songs are usually limited to a range of a sixth (four tones and a half). The impression of vocal effort is the result of using different
timbres, and variety is accomplished by the use of microtones.
#Use of
enharmonic scale. While in
equal temperament scales,
enharmonics are notes with identical name but different spellings (e.g. A flat and G sharp), in flamenco, as in
unequal temperament scales, there is a microtonal intervalic difference between enharmonic notes.
#Insistence on a note and its contiguous chromatic notes (also frequent in the guitar), producing a sense of urgency.
#Baroque
ornamentation, with an expressive, rather than merely aesthetic function.
#Greek
Dorian mode (modern
Phrygian mode) in the most traditional songs.
#Apparent lack of regular rhythm, especially in the
siguiriyas: the melodic rhythm of the sung line is different from the metric rhythm of the accompaniment.
#Most styles express sad and bitter feelings.
#Melodic
improvisation. Although flamenco singing is not, properly speaking, improvised, but based on a relatively small number of traditional songs, singers add variations on the spur of the moment.
Musicologist Hipólito Rossy adds the following characteristics (Rossy 1998: 94):
★ Flamenco melodies are also characterized by a descending tendency, as opposed to, for example, a typical
opera aria, they usually go from the higher pitches to the lower ones, and from
forte to
piano, as it was usual in ancient Greek scales.
★ In many styles, such as
soléa or
siguiriya, the melody tends to proceed in contiguous
degrees of the scale.
Skips of a third or a fourth are rarer. However, in
fandangos and fandango-derived styles, fourths and sixths can often be found, especially at the beginning of each line of verse. According to Rossy, this would be a proof of the more recent creation of this type of songs, which would be influenced by the Castilian
jota.
Compás
'Compás' is the Spanish word for
metre and
time signature in classical
music theory. In flamenco, besides having these meanings, it also refers to the rhythmic cycle, or layout, of a ''palo'' or flamenco style. When performing flamenco it is important to feel the rhythm — the compás — rather than mechanically count the beats. In this way, flamenco is similar to jazz or blues where performers seem to simply 'feel' the rhythm.
Flamenco uses three basic counts or measures: Binary, Ternary and the (unique to flamenco) twelve-beat cycle which is difficult to confine within the classical measure. There are also free-form styles, not subject to any particular metre, including, among others, the palos in the group of the
tonás, the
saetas,
malagueñas, tarantas, and some types of
fandangos.
★ Rhythms in 2/4 or 4/4. These metres are used in forms like
tangos,
tientos,
gypsy rumba,
zambra and
tanguillos[11].
★ Rhythms in 3/4. These are typical of
fandangos and
sevillanas both of these forms originate in Spanish folk, thereby illustrating their provenance as non-Gypsy styles, since the 3/4 and 4/4 measures are the most common throughout the Western world but not within the ethnic Gypsy, nor Hindi musics.
★ 12-beat rhythms usually rendered in amalgams of 6/8 + 3/4 and sometimes measures of 12/8 in attempts to confine it within the classical constraints. The 12 beat cycle is fundamental in the soleá and buerías palos, for example. However, the various accentuation differentiates these two. These accentuations don't correspond to the classic concept of the downbeat, whereby the first beat in the measure is emphasised. In flamenco, the different ways of performing percussion (including the complex technique of ''palmas'') make it hard to render in traditional musical notation. The alternating of groups of 2 and 3 beats is also common in the Spanish folk or traditional dances of the 16th Century such as the ''zarabanda'', ''jácara'' and ''canarios''.
They are also common in Latin American countries.
12-beat amalgams are in fact the most common in flamenco. There are three types of these, which vary in their layouts, or use of accentuations:
The soleá
The seguiriya
The bulería
#
peteneras and
guajiras: '1' 2 3 '4' 5 6 '7' 8 '9' 10 '11' 12
#The
seguiriya,
liviana,
serrana,
toná liviana,
cabales: '1' 2 '3' 4 '5' 6 7 '8' 9 10 '11' 12 The seguiriya is measured in the same way as the soleá but starting on the 8th beat
#
soleá, whithin the
cantiñas group of palos which includes the
alegrías, cantiñas, mirabras, romera, caracoles and soleá por bulería (also “
bulería por soleá”): 1 2 '3' 4 5 '6' 7 '8' 9 '10' 11 '12'. For practical reasons, when transferring flamenco guitar music to sheet music, this rhythm is written as a regular 3/4. The
Bulerías is the emblematic palo of flamenco, today its 12 beat cycle is most often played with accents on the 1, 4, 8, and 9th beats. The accompanying ''palmas'' are played in groups of 6 beats, giving rise to a multitude of counter rhythms and percussive voices within the 12 beat compás
The compás is fundamental to flamenco, it is the basic definition of the music, and without compás, there is no flamenco. Compás is therefore more than simply the division of beats and accentuations, it is the backbone of this musical form. In private gatherings, if there is no guitarist available, the compás is rendered through hand clapping (''palmas'') or by hitting a table with the knuckles. This is also sometimes done in recordings especially for bulerías. The guitar also has an important function, using techniques like strumming (''rasgueado'') or tapping the
soundboard. Changes of chords also emphasize the most important downbeats. When a dancers are present, they use their feet as a percussion instrument.
Forms of flamenco expression
Flamenco is expressed through the ''toque'' -- the playing of the flamenco guitar, the ''cante'' (singing), and the ''baile'' (dancing)
Toque
Main articles: Flamenco guitar
The flamenco guitar (and the very similar
classical guitar) is a descendent from the
lute. The first guitars are thought to have originated in Spain in the 15th century. The traditional flamenco guitar is made of Spanish
cypress and
spruce, and is lighter in weight and a bit smaller than a classical guitar, to give the output a 'sharper' sound. The flamenco guitar, in contrast to the classical, is also equipped with a barrier, called a
golpeador. This is often plastic, similar to a pick guard, and protects the body of the guitar from the rhythmic finger taps, called
golpes. The flamenco guitar is also used in several different ways from the classical guitar, including different strumming patterns and styles, as well as the use of a
capo in many circumstances.
Cante
Main articles: Cante flamenco
Foreigners often think that the essence of flamenco is the dance. However, the heart of flamenco is the song (cante). Although to the uninitiated, flamenco seems totally extemporaneous, these cantes (songs) and bailes (dances) follow strict musical and poetic rules. The verses (coplas) of these songs often are beautiful and concise poems, and the style of the flamenco copla was often imitated by Andalucian poets.
Garcia Lorca is perhaps the best known of these poets. In the 1920s he, along with the composer
Manuel de Falla and other intellectuals, crusaded to raise the status of flamenco as an art form and preserve its purity. But the future of flamenco is uncertain. Flamenco is tied to the conditions and culture of Andalusia in the past, and as Spain modernizes and integrates into the European community, it is questionable whether flamenco can survive the social and economic changes.
Cante flamenco can be categorized in a number of ways. First, a cante may be categorized according to whether it follows a strict rhythmic pattern ("compas") or follows a free rhythm ("libre").
The cantes with compas fit one of four compas patterns. These compas-types are generally known by the name of the most important cante of the group. Thus
# Solea
# Siguiriya
# Tango
# Fandango
The solea group includes the cantes: solea; romances, solea por bulerias, alegrias (cantinas); La Cana; El Polo
Baile
''El baile flamenco'' is a highly-expressive solo dance, known for its emotional sweeping of the arms and rhythmic stomping of the feet. While flamenco dancers (''bailaores'' and ''bailaoras'') invest a considerable amount of study and practice into their art form, the dances are not choreographed, but are improvised along the ''palo'' or rhythm. In addition to the percussion provided by the heels and balls of the feet striking the floor,
castanets are sometimes held in the hands and clicked together rapidly to the rhythm of the music. Sometimes, folding fans are used for visual effect.
Palos
Main articles: Palo (flamenco)
Flamenco music styles are called ''
palos'' in Spanish. There are over 50 different ''palos'' flamenco, although some of them are rarely performed.
A ''palo'' can be defined as
musical form of flamenco. Flamenco songs are classified into palos based on several musical and non-musical criteria such as its basic rhythmic pattern,
mode,
chord progression, form of the
stanza, or geographic origin. The rhythmic patterns of the palos are also often called ''compás''. A ''compás'' (the Spanish normal word for either
time signature or
bar) is characterised by a recurring pattern of beats and accents.
To really understand the different palos, it is also important to understand their musical and cultural context:
★ The mood intention of the palo (for example, dancing -
Alegrías, consolation -
Soleá, fun -
Buleria, etc.). Although ''palos'' are associated with type of feeling or mood, this is by no means rigid.
★ The set of typical melodic phrases, called ''
falsetas'', which are often used in performances of a certain palo.
★ The relation to similar palos.
★ Cultural traditions associated with a palo (ie: men's dance -
Farruca)
Some of the forms are sung unaccompanied, while others usually have a guitar and sometimes other accompaniment. Some forms are danced while others traditionally are not. Amongst both the songs and the dances, some are traditionally the reserve of men and others of women, while still others could be performed by either sex. Many of these traditional distinctions are now breaking down; for example, the ''Farruca'' is traditionally a man's dance, but is now commonly performed by women too. Many flamenco artists, including some considered to be amongst the greatest, have specialised in a single flamenco form.
The classification of flamenco ''palos'' is not entirely uncontentious, but a common traditional classification is into three groups. The deepest, most serious forms are known as ''
cante jondo'' (or ''
cante grande''), while relatively light, frivolous forms are called ''
cante chico''. Other non-musical considerations often factor into this classification, such as whether the origin of the ''palo'' is considered to be gypsy or not. Forms which do not fit into either category but lie somewhere between them are classified as ''
cante intermedio''. However, there is no general agreement on how to classify each ''palo''. Whereas there is general agreement that the
soleá,
seguiriya and the
tonás must be considered ''cante jondo'', there is wide controversy on where to place cantes like the
fandango,
malagueña, or
tientos. Many flamenco fans tend to disregard this classification as highly subjective, or else they considered that, whatever makes a song ''cante grande'' is not the song itself but the depth of the interpreter.
The classification below reflects another traditional classification of cantes more based on rhythmic pattern, but also taking the origin into account.
Toná Palos (usually known as
Cantes a palo seco)
★
Debla
★
Martinetes
★
Carceleras
★
Saetas
★
Tonás
★
Trilla
Palos based on the
Soleá rhythm
★
Alboreá
★
Bulerías - ''(
Luis Maravilla. 31 seconds,133Kb)'' and Jaleos from extremadura (a variety of Bulerías)
★ The related palos
Caña and
Polo (flamenco palo)
★ The
Cantiñas group, including:
★
★
Alegrías
★
★
Caracoles
★
★
Mirabrás
★
★
Romeras
★
★ other Cantiñas
★
Peteneras
★
Romances
★
Soleá - ''(
Juan Serrano. 30 seconds,118Kb)'' and
Bulerías por Soleá.
Palos derived from Fandango
★
Fandangos de Huelva
★ Fandangos orientales (from Eastern Andalusia and Murcia)
★
★ Fandangos abandolaos, including:
★
★
★
Verdiales
★
★
★
Rondeñas
★
★
★
Jabera
★
★ Fandangos
libres (free of rhythmic pattern):
★
★
★
Granaínas
★
★
★
Media Granaína
★
★
★
Malagueñas
★
★
★
Cantes de las minas (songs originated in mining areas):
Minera,
Tarantos,
Tarantas,
Cartageneras,
Murciana,
Levantica,
Cantes de madrugá
★ Fandangos personales (personal creations)
Seguiriya Palos
★
Cabales
★
Livianas
★
Siguiriyas - (also ''seguiriyas'') ''(
Carlos Montoya. 30 seconds,135Kb)''
★
Serrana
Palos with a Tango rhythm
★
Farruca - ''(
Sabicas. 35 seconds,147Kb)''
★
Garrotín
★
Marianas
★
Tarantos (when played for dance).
★
Tientos
★
Tanguillos
★
Tango
Palos de "Ida y vuelta"
Other palos with a tango rhythm are often considered as "Ida y vuelta", that is, originated in Spanish America.
★ Colombianas
★
Guajiras - ''(
Sabicas. 35 seconds,158Kb)''
★
Milonga
★
Rumba
★
Vidalitas
Other palos of difficult classification
★
Campanilleros
★
Bambera
★
Sevillanas
★
Nanas
★
Zambras
★
Zorongo
Flamenco artists
Flamenco occurs in two types of settings. The first, the ''
juerga'' is an informal gathering where people are free to join in creating music. This can include dancing, singing, ''palmas'' (hand clapping), or simply pounding in rhythm on an old orange crate or a table. Flamenco, in this context, is very dynamic: it adapts to the local talent, instrumentation, and mood of the audience. One tradition remains firmly in place: singers are the most important part.
The professional concert is more formal and organized. The traditional singing performance has only a singer and one guitar, while a dancing performance usually included two or three guitars, one or more singers (singing in turns, as in traditional flamenco singers always sing
solo), and one or more dancers. A guitar concert used to include a single guitarist, with no other support, though this is now extremely rare except for a few guitarists like
Dylan Hunt or, occasionally,
Gerardo Núñez. The so-called
New flamenco has included other instruments, like the now ubiquitous
cajón,
flutes or
saxophones, piano or other keyboards, or even the
bass guitar and the
electric guitar.
A great number of flamenco artists are not capable of performing in both settings at the same level. There are still many artists, and some of them with a good level, who only perform in ''juergas'', or at most in private parties with a small audience. As to their training in the art, traditional flamenco artists never received any formal training: they learnt in the context of the family, by listening and watching their relations, friends and neighbours. Since the appearance of recordings, though, they have relied more and more on audiovisual materials to learn from other famous artists. Nowadays, dancers and guitarists (and sometimes even singers) take lessons in schools or in short courses organized by famous performers. Some guitarists can even read music or learn from teachers in others styles like
classical guitar or
jazz, and many dancers take courses in
contemporary dance or
Classical Spanish ballet.
An overview of the various flamenco artists can be found in the following categories:
★
★
★
★
Sources
ÁLVAREZ CABALLERO, Ángel: ''El cante flamenco'', Alianza Editorial, Madrid, Second edition, 1998. ISBN 84-206-9682-X (First edition: 1994)
ÁLVAREZ CABALLERO, Ángel: ''La Discografía ideal del cante flamenco'', Planeta, Barcelona, 1995. ISBN 84-08-01602-4
COELHO, Víctor Anand (Editor): "Flamenco Guitar: History, Style, and Context," in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 13-32.
MAIRENA, Antonio & MOLINA, Ricardo: ''Mundo y formas del cante flamenco'', Librería Al-Ándalus, Third Edition, 1979 (First Edition: Revista de Occidente, 1963)
MARTÍN SALAZAR, Jorge: ''Los cantes flamencos'', Diputación Provincial de Granada, Granada, 1991 ISBN 84-7807-041-9
MANUEL, Peter. “Flamenco in Focus: An Analysis of a Performance of Soleares.” In ''Analytical Studies in World Music'', edited by Michael Tenzer. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 92-119.
ORTIZ NUEVO, José Luis: ''Alegato contra la pureza'', Libros PM, Barcelona, 1996. ISBN 84-88944-07-1
RÍOS RUIZ, ''Ayer y hoy del cante flamenco'', Ediciones ISTMO, Tres Cantos (Madrid), 1997, ISBN 84-7090-311-X
ROSSY, Hipólito: ''Teoría del Cante Jondo'', CREDSA, Barcelona, 1998. ISBN 84-7056-354-8 (First edition: 1966)
See also
★
Paco de Lucia
★
Flamenco guitar
★
Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
★
La Convivencia
★
Picados
★
Palo
★
Silverio Franconetti
★
Roger Scannura
External links
★ Flamenco Guitar Teachers
★
★
Flamenco Guitar Teachers in Spain List of flamenco guitar teachers in Jerez, Spain
★ Flamenco Schools
★
★
Taller Flamenco Flamenco courses in Seville (Spain)
Videos and websites
★ General
★
★
General flamenco website in french
★
★
El Flamenco Vive: Online Magazine and Virtual Store
★
★
Flamenco News Reviews and Videos
★
★
Flamenco Institute Flora Albaicín, Nacional Price of Flamenco. The oldest and biggest flamenco dance school in the world. Dance Company Flora Albaicín.
★
★
The Art of Flamenco website
★
★
Flamenco in Russia
★
★
Great Flamenco Forum
★
★
Online Flamenco Guitar Lessons at New Learning Vision
★
★
Flamenco Glossary
★
★
The best way to study flamenco in Spain!
★
★
Camaron Flamenco - Web site about Camaron de la isla and Flamenco sources
★
★
Flamenco Temple
★
★
News and reports about flamenco, flamenco guitar and flamenco dancing
★
★
new flamenco website dedicated to flamenco art
★
★
Scientific Flamenco palos study -
Phylogenetic study of some palos
★
★
Flamenco blog
★
★
ilusion flamenca! - English/Spanish Flamenco website
★
★
An Introduction to Flamenco Music
★
★
Flamenco and Flamenco-influenced artist biographies at World Music Central
★
★
Flamenco in Canada. This site also offers a 24 Hour Radio broadcasting authentic content
★
★ http://www.rogerscannura.ca
★
★
Compás and Rhythm - the Flamenco metronome
★
★
Flamenco World Contemporary Camerata Flamenco Project
★
★
Flamenco Express Videos
★
★
The Flamenco Journey
★
★
Flamenco & Picasso
★
★
Worldwide Flamenco Directory (Instructors & Performers, educational resources)
★
★
Flamenco Dance Photos
★ Baile
★
★
Dancing Flamenco
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