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'Feminist theory' is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical, ground. It encompasses work done in a broad variety of disciplines, prominently including the approaches to women's roles and lives and feminist politics in anthropology and sociology, economics, women's and gender studies, feminist literary criticism, and philosophy especially Continental philosophy. Brabeck, M. and Brown, L. (with Christian, L., Espin, O., Hare-Mustin, R., Kaplan, A., Kaschak, E., Miller, D., Phillips, E., Ferns, T., and Van Ormer, A.) 'Feminist theory and psychological practice', in J. Worell and N. Johnson (eds.) ''Shaping the future of feminist psychology: Education, research, and practice'' (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1997), pp.15-35
Feminist theory aims to understand the nature of inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations and sexuality. While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women's rights, interests, and issues. Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy. Gilligan, Carol, 'In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality' in ''Harvard Educational Review'' (1977) Chodorow, Nancy J., ''Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory'' (Yale University Press: 1989, 1991) Lerman, Hannah, ''Feminist Ethics in Psychotherapy'' (Springer Publishing Company, 1990) ISBN 9780826162908
Nancy Cott draws a distinction between ''modern feminism'' and its antecedents, particularly the struggle for suffrage. In the United States she places the turning point in the decades before and after women obtained the vote in 1920 (1910-1930). She argues that the prior ''woman movement'' was primarily about woman as a ''universal'' entity, whereas over this 20 year period it transformed itself into one primarily concerned with social differentiation, attentive to ''individuality'' and diversity. New issues dealt more with woman's condition as a social construct, gender identity, and relationships within and between genders. Politically this represented a shift from an ideological alignment comfortable with the right, to one more radically associated with the left.[1]
Susan Kingsley says that Freudian patriarchy was responsible for the diminished profile of feminism in the inter-war years,[2] others such as Juliet Mitchell consider this to be
overly simplistic since Freudian theory is not wholly incompatible with feminism.[3] Nevertheless, feminist scholarship shifted away from the need to establish the origins of family, and towards analyzing the process of patriarchy.[4]
In the immediate postwar period, Simone de Beauvoir stood in opposition to an image of "the woman in the home". De Beauvoir provided an existentialist dimension to feminism with the publication of Le Deuxième Sexe (The Second Sex) in 1949.[5]
As the title implies, the starting point is the implicit inferiority of women, and the first question de Beauvoir asks is "what is a woman"?.[6]
Woman she realises is always perceived of as "other", "''she is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her''". In this book and her essay, "''Woman: Myth & Reality''", de Beauvoir anticipates Betty Friedan in seeking to demythologise the male concept of woman. "''A myth invented by men to confine women to their oppressed`state. For women it is not a question of asserting themselves as women, but of becoming full-scale human beings''." "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman", or as Moril Toi puts it "a woman defines herself through the way she lives her embodied situation in the world, or in other words, through the way in which she makes something of what the world makes of her". Therefore, woman must regain subject, to escape her defined role as "other", as a Cartesian point of departure.[7]
In her examination of myth, she appears as one who does not accept any special privileges for women. Ironically, feminist philosophers have had to extract de Beauvoir herself from out of the shadow of Jean-Paul Sartre to fully appreciate her.[8] While more philosopher and novelist than activist, she did sign one of the Mouvement de Libération des Femmes manifestos.
The resurgence of feminist activism in the late 1960s was accompanied by an emerging literature of what might be considered female associated issues, such as concerns for the earth and spirituality, and environmental activism.
This in turn created an atmosphere conducive to reigniting the study of and debate on matricentricity,
as a rejection of determinism, such as Adrienne Rich[9]
and Marilyn French[10]
while for socialist feminists like Evelyn Reed,[11]
patriarchy held the properties of capitalism.
Elaine Showalter describes the development of Feminist theory as having a number of phases. The first she calls "feminist critique" - where the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls "Gynocritics" - where the "woman is producer of textual meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career [and] literary history". The last phase she calls "gender theory" - where the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system" are explored." Showalter, Elaine. 'Toward a Feminist Poetics: Women’s Writing and Writing About Women' in ''The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature and Theory'' (Random House, 1988), ISBN 9780394726472 This model has been criticized by Toril Moi who sees it as an essentialist and deterministic model for female subjectivity. She also criticized it for not taking account of the situation for women outside the west.Moi, Toril, ''Sexual/Textual Politics'' (Routledge, 2002), ISBN 9780415280129
There are a number of distinct feminist disciplines, wherein experts in fields such as Psychoanalysis or law apply feminist techniques and principles to their own areas of expertise.
Psychoanalytic feminism is based on Freud and his psychoanalytic theories. It maintains that gender is not biological but is based on the psycho-sexual development of the individual. Psychoanalytical feminists believe that gender inequality comes from early childhood experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be masculine, and women to believe themselves feminine. It is further maintained that gender leads to a social system that is dominated by males, which in turn influences the individual psycho-sexual development. As a solution it was suggested to avoid the gender-specific structuring of the society by male-female coeducation.
Main articles: Feminist literary criticism
Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by feminist theories or politics. Its history has been varied, from classic works of nineteenth-century women authors such as George Eliot and Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in women's studies and gender studies by "third-wave" authors.Barry, Peter, 'Feminist Literary Criticism' in ''Beginning theory'' (Manchester University Press: 2002), ISBN 0719062683
In the most general, feminist literary criticism before the 1970s was concerned with the politics of women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within literature. Since the arrival of more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new routes. It has considered gender in the terms of Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the deconstruction of existing power relations.
Main articles: Feminist film theory
Feminists have taken many different approaches to the analysis of cinema. These include discussions of the function of women characters in particular film narratives or in particular genres, such as film noir, where a woman character can often be seen to embody a subversive sexuality that is dangerous to men and is ultimately punished with death. In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to the "male gaze" that predominates in classical Hollywood film making. Through the use of various film techniques, such as shot reverse shot, the viewer is led to align herself with the point of view of a male protagonist. Notably, women function as objects of this gaze far more often than as proxies for the spectator. Chaudhuri, Shohini, ''Feminist Film Theorists'' (Routledge, 2006) ISBN 9780415324335 Mulvey, Laura 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' in ''Feminism and Film Theory''. Ed. Constance Penley (Routledge, 1988)[1]
Main articles: Feminist history
Feminist history refers to the re-reading and re-interpretation of history from a feminist perspective. It is not the same as the history of feminism, which outlines the origins and evolution of the feminist movement. It also differs from women's history, which focuses on the role of women in historical events. The goal of feminist history is to explore and illuminate the female viewpoint of history through rediscovery of female writers, artists, philosophers, etc, in order to recover and demonstrate the significance of women's voices and choices in the past.Cain, William E., ed. ''Making Feminist History: The Literary Scholarship of Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar'' (Garland Publications, 1994)Laslitt, Barbara, Ruth-Ellen B. Joeres, Mary Jo Maynes, Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, and Jeanne Barker-Nunn, ed. ''History and Theory: Feminist Research, Debates, Contestations'' (University of Chicago Press, 1997) Lerner, Gerda, ''The Majority Finds Its Past: Placing Women in History'' (Oxford University Press, 1981)
Main articles: Feminist geography
Feminist geography is often considered part of a broader postmodern approach to the subject which is not primarily concerned with the development of conceptual theory in itself but rather focuses on the real experiences of individuals and groups in their own localities, upon the geographies that they live in within their own communities. In addition to its analysis of the real world, it also critiques existing geographical and social studies, arguing that academic traditions are deliniated by patriarchy, and that contemporary studies which do not confront the nature of previous work reinforce the male bias of academic study.Rose, Gillian, ''Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge'' (Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1993)Moss, Pamela, ''Feminisms in Geography: Rethinking Space, Place, and Knowledges'' (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007) ISBN 9780742538290
Main articles: Feminist philosophy
Feminist philosophy refers to philosophy approached from a feminist perspective. Feminist philosophy involves both attempts to use the methods of philosophy to further the cause of the feminist movements, and attempts to criticise or re-evaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy from within a feminist framework. Gatens, M., ''Feminism and Philosophy: Perspectives on Difference and Equality'' (Indiana University Press, 1991)
There is no one school of feminist philosophy: feminist philosophers, as philosophers, are found in both the analytic and Continental traditions, and the myriad different viewpoints taken on philosophical issues within those traditions; and feminist philosophers, as feminists, are found belonging to the many different varieties of feminism.
Main articles: Feminist sexology
Feminist sexology is an offshoot of traditional studies of sexology that focuses on the intersectionality of sex and gender in relation to the sexual lives of women. Feminist sexology shares many principles with the wider field of sexology; in particular, it does not try to prescribe a certain path or “normality” for women's sexuality, but only observe and note the different and varied ways in which women express their sexuality. Looking at sexuality from a feminist point of view creates connections between the different aspects of a person's sexual life. Tiefer, L., 'A feminist perspective on sexology and sexuality' in Mary M. Gergen (eds) ''Feminist Thought and the Structure of Knowledge'' (New York University Press, 1989) ISBN 9780814730317
Main articles: Feminist economics
Feminist economics broadly refers to a developing branch of economics that applies feminist insights and critiques to economics. Research under this heading is often interdisciplinary, critical, or heterodox. It encompasses debates about the relationship between feminism and economics on many levels: from applying mainstream economic methods to under-researched "women's" areas, to questioning how mainstream economics values the reproductive sector, to deeply philosophical critiques of economic epistemology and methodology.
One prominent issue that feminist economists investigate is how the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) does not adequately measure unpaid labor predominantly performed by women, such as housework, childcare, and eldercare.[12] Feminist economists have also challenged and exposed the rhetorical approach of mainstream economics.[13] They have made critiques of many basic assumptions of mainstream economics, including the Homo economicus model.[14] They have been instrumental in creating alternative models, such as the Capability Approach and incorporating gender into the analysis of economic data. Marilyn Power suggests that feminist economic methodology can be broken down into the following five categories: [15]
Main articles: Feminist legal theory
The study of feminist legal theory is a school thought based on the common view that law's treatment of women in relation to men has not been equal or fair. The goals of feminist legal theory as defined by leading theorist Claire Dalton, consist of understanding and exploring the female experience, figuring out how law and institutions oppose females, and figuring out what changes can be committed to. This is to be accomplished through studying the connections between the law and gender as well as applying feminist analysis to concrete areas of law.Dalton, Claire, 'Where We Stand: Observations on the Situation of Feminist Legal Thought' in ''Feminist Legal Theory: Foundations'' ed. by by D. Kelly Weisberg (Temple University Press, 1993), ISBN 9781566390286 Dalton, Claire, 'Deconstructing Contract Doctrine' in ''Feminist Legal Theory: Readings in Law and Gender'' ed. by
Katharine T. Bartlett and Rosanne Kennedy (Harper Collins, 1992)''Feminist Legal Theory: Readings in Law and Gender'' ed. by Katharine T. Bartlett and Rosanne Kennedy (Harper Collins, 1992), ISBN 9780813312484
1. Cott, Nancy F. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987
2. Kent, Susan Kingsley. Making Peace: The Reconstruction of Gender in Interwar Britain. Princeton, N.J. 1993
3. Mitchell, Juliet. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: Freud, Reich, Laing, and Women. New York 1975
4. Stocking, George W. Jr. After Tylor: British Social Anthropology, 1888–1951. Madison, Wisconsin 1995
5. Le Deuxième Sexe (online edition)
6. Moi, Toril. What is a Woman? And Other Essays. Oxford 2000
7. Bergoffen, Debra B. The Philosophy of Simone de Beauvoir: Gendered Phenomenologies, Erotic Generosities. SUNY 1996 ISBN 0-7914-3151-7
8. Sullivan, Shannon. The work of Simone de Beauvoir: Introduction Journal of Speculative Philosophy 2000 14(2):v
9. Rich, Adrienne. Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution New York 1976
10. French, Marilyn. Beyond Power: On Women, Men, and Morals. New York 1985
11. Reed, Evelyn. Woman's Evolution: From Matriarchal Clan to Patriarchal Family. New York, 1975
12. Waring, Marilyn, ''If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics,''San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.
13. Nelson, Julie A., "Gender, Metaphor, and the Definition of Economics," ''Economics and Philosophy'' 8(1), 1992; McCloskey, D. N. "Some Consequences of a Conjective Economics" in ''Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics,'' ed. J.A. Nelson and M.A. Ferber, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. See also McCloskey critique.
14. Nelson, Julie A. and Marianne A. Ferber, ''Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics,'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
15. Power, Marilyn. "Social Provisioning as a Starting Point for Feminist Economics" ''Feminist Economics''. Volume 10, Number 3. Routledge, November 2004.
★ Gender studies
★ Women's studies
★ Feminist anthropology
★ Liberal feminism
★ Radical feminism
★ Marxist feminism
★ Socialist feminism
★ Feminist theory website (Center for Digital Discourse and Culture, Virginia Tech University)
★ Feminist Theories and Anthropology by Heidi Armbruster
★ [2] ''The Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational Structure'' (Seattle: Red Letter Press, 2001)
Feminist theory aims to understand the nature of inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations and sexuality. While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women's rights, interests, and issues. Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy. Gilligan, Carol, 'In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality' in ''Harvard Educational Review'' (1977) Chodorow, Nancy J., ''Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory'' (Yale University Press: 1989, 1991) Lerman, Hannah, ''Feminist Ethics in Psychotherapy'' (Springer Publishing Company, 1990) ISBN 9780826162908
History
Nancy Cott draws a distinction between ''modern feminism'' and its antecedents, particularly the struggle for suffrage. In the United States she places the turning point in the decades before and after women obtained the vote in 1920 (1910-1930). She argues that the prior ''woman movement'' was primarily about woman as a ''universal'' entity, whereas over this 20 year period it transformed itself into one primarily concerned with social differentiation, attentive to ''individuality'' and diversity. New issues dealt more with woman's condition as a social construct, gender identity, and relationships within and between genders. Politically this represented a shift from an ideological alignment comfortable with the right, to one more radically associated with the left.[1]
Susan Kingsley says that Freudian patriarchy was responsible for the diminished profile of feminism in the inter-war years,[2] others such as Juliet Mitchell consider this to be
overly simplistic since Freudian theory is not wholly incompatible with feminism.[3] Nevertheless, feminist scholarship shifted away from the need to establish the origins of family, and towards analyzing the process of patriarchy.[4]
In the immediate postwar period, Simone de Beauvoir stood in opposition to an image of "the woman in the home". De Beauvoir provided an existentialist dimension to feminism with the publication of Le Deuxième Sexe (The Second Sex) in 1949.[5]
As the title implies, the starting point is the implicit inferiority of women, and the first question de Beauvoir asks is "what is a woman"?.[6]
Woman she realises is always perceived of as "other", "''she is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her''". In this book and her essay, "''Woman: Myth & Reality''", de Beauvoir anticipates Betty Friedan in seeking to demythologise the male concept of woman. "''A myth invented by men to confine women to their oppressed`state. For women it is not a question of asserting themselves as women, but of becoming full-scale human beings''." "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman", or as Moril Toi puts it "a woman defines herself through the way she lives her embodied situation in the world, or in other words, through the way in which she makes something of what the world makes of her". Therefore, woman must regain subject, to escape her defined role as "other", as a Cartesian point of departure.[7]
In her examination of myth, she appears as one who does not accept any special privileges for women. Ironically, feminist philosophers have had to extract de Beauvoir herself from out of the shadow of Jean-Paul Sartre to fully appreciate her.[8] While more philosopher and novelist than activist, she did sign one of the Mouvement de Libération des Femmes manifestos.
The resurgence of feminist activism in the late 1960s was accompanied by an emerging literature of what might be considered female associated issues, such as concerns for the earth and spirituality, and environmental activism.
This in turn created an atmosphere conducive to reigniting the study of and debate on matricentricity,
as a rejection of determinism, such as Adrienne Rich[9]
and Marilyn French[10]
while for socialist feminists like Evelyn Reed,[11]
patriarchy held the properties of capitalism.
Elaine Showalter describes the development of Feminist theory as having a number of phases. The first she calls "feminist critique" - where the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls "Gynocritics" - where the "woman is producer of textual meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career [and] literary history". The last phase she calls "gender theory" - where the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system" are explored." Showalter, Elaine. 'Toward a Feminist Poetics: Women’s Writing and Writing About Women' in ''The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature and Theory'' (Random House, 1988), ISBN 9780394726472 This model has been criticized by Toril Moi who sees it as an essentialist and deterministic model for female subjectivity. She also criticized it for not taking account of the situation for women outside the west.Moi, Toril, ''Sexual/Textual Politics'' (Routledge, 2002), ISBN 9780415280129
Feminist disciplines
There are a number of distinct feminist disciplines, wherein experts in fields such as Psychoanalysis or law apply feminist techniques and principles to their own areas of expertise.
Feminist psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic feminism is based on Freud and his psychoanalytic theories. It maintains that gender is not biological but is based on the psycho-sexual development of the individual. Psychoanalytical feminists believe that gender inequality comes from early childhood experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be masculine, and women to believe themselves feminine. It is further maintained that gender leads to a social system that is dominated by males, which in turn influences the individual psycho-sexual development. As a solution it was suggested to avoid the gender-specific structuring of the society by male-female coeducation.
Feminist literary theory
Main articles: Feminist literary criticism
Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by feminist theories or politics. Its history has been varied, from classic works of nineteenth-century women authors such as George Eliot and Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in women's studies and gender studies by "third-wave" authors.Barry, Peter, 'Feminist Literary Criticism' in ''Beginning theory'' (Manchester University Press: 2002), ISBN 0719062683
In the most general, feminist literary criticism before the 1970s was concerned with the politics of women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within literature. Since the arrival of more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new routes. It has considered gender in the terms of Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the deconstruction of existing power relations.
Feminist film theory
Main articles: Feminist film theory
Feminists have taken many different approaches to the analysis of cinema. These include discussions of the function of women characters in particular film narratives or in particular genres, such as film noir, where a woman character can often be seen to embody a subversive sexuality that is dangerous to men and is ultimately punished with death. In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to the "male gaze" that predominates in classical Hollywood film making. Through the use of various film techniques, such as shot reverse shot, the viewer is led to align herself with the point of view of a male protagonist. Notably, women function as objects of this gaze far more often than as proxies for the spectator. Chaudhuri, Shohini, ''Feminist Film Theorists'' (Routledge, 2006) ISBN 9780415324335 Mulvey, Laura 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' in ''Feminism and Film Theory''. Ed. Constance Penley (Routledge, 1988)[1]
Feminist history
Main articles: Feminist history
Feminist history refers to the re-reading and re-interpretation of history from a feminist perspective. It is not the same as the history of feminism, which outlines the origins and evolution of the feminist movement. It also differs from women's history, which focuses on the role of women in historical events. The goal of feminist history is to explore and illuminate the female viewpoint of history through rediscovery of female writers, artists, philosophers, etc, in order to recover and demonstrate the significance of women's voices and choices in the past.Cain, William E., ed. ''Making Feminist History: The Literary Scholarship of Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar'' (Garland Publications, 1994)Laslitt, Barbara, Ruth-Ellen B. Joeres, Mary Jo Maynes, Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, and Jeanne Barker-Nunn, ed. ''History and Theory: Feminist Research, Debates, Contestations'' (University of Chicago Press, 1997) Lerner, Gerda, ''The Majority Finds Its Past: Placing Women in History'' (Oxford University Press, 1981)
Feminist geography
Main articles: Feminist geography
Feminist geography is often considered part of a broader postmodern approach to the subject which is not primarily concerned with the development of conceptual theory in itself but rather focuses on the real experiences of individuals and groups in their own localities, upon the geographies that they live in within their own communities. In addition to its analysis of the real world, it also critiques existing geographical and social studies, arguing that academic traditions are deliniated by patriarchy, and that contemporary studies which do not confront the nature of previous work reinforce the male bias of academic study.Rose, Gillian, ''Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge'' (Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1993)Moss, Pamela, ''Feminisms in Geography: Rethinking Space, Place, and Knowledges'' (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007) ISBN 9780742538290
Feminist philosophy
Main articles: Feminist philosophy
Feminist philosophy refers to philosophy approached from a feminist perspective. Feminist philosophy involves both attempts to use the methods of philosophy to further the cause of the feminist movements, and attempts to criticise or re-evaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy from within a feminist framework. Gatens, M., ''Feminism and Philosophy: Perspectives on Difference and Equality'' (Indiana University Press, 1991)
There is no one school of feminist philosophy: feminist philosophers, as philosophers, are found in both the analytic and Continental traditions, and the myriad different viewpoints taken on philosophical issues within those traditions; and feminist philosophers, as feminists, are found belonging to the many different varieties of feminism.
Feminist sexology
Main articles: Feminist sexology
Feminist sexology is an offshoot of traditional studies of sexology that focuses on the intersectionality of sex and gender in relation to the sexual lives of women. Feminist sexology shares many principles with the wider field of sexology; in particular, it does not try to prescribe a certain path or “normality” for women's sexuality, but only observe and note the different and varied ways in which women express their sexuality. Looking at sexuality from a feminist point of view creates connections between the different aspects of a person's sexual life. Tiefer, L., 'A feminist perspective on sexology and sexuality' in Mary M. Gergen (eds) ''Feminist Thought and the Structure of Knowledge'' (New York University Press, 1989) ISBN 9780814730317
Feminist economics
Main articles: Feminist economics
Feminist economics broadly refers to a developing branch of economics that applies feminist insights and critiques to economics. Research under this heading is often interdisciplinary, critical, or heterodox. It encompasses debates about the relationship between feminism and economics on many levels: from applying mainstream economic methods to under-researched "women's" areas, to questioning how mainstream economics values the reproductive sector, to deeply philosophical critiques of economic epistemology and methodology.
One prominent issue that feminist economists investigate is how the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) does not adequately measure unpaid labor predominantly performed by women, such as housework, childcare, and eldercare.[12] Feminist economists have also challenged and exposed the rhetorical approach of mainstream economics.[13] They have made critiques of many basic assumptions of mainstream economics, including the Homo economicus model.[14] They have been instrumental in creating alternative models, such as the Capability Approach and incorporating gender into the analysis of economic data. Marilyn Power suggests that feminist economic methodology can be broken down into the following five categories: [15]
Feminist legal theory
Main articles: Feminist legal theory
The study of feminist legal theory is a school thought based on the common view that law's treatment of women in relation to men has not been equal or fair. The goals of feminist legal theory as defined by leading theorist Claire Dalton, consist of understanding and exploring the female experience, figuring out how law and institutions oppose females, and figuring out what changes can be committed to. This is to be accomplished through studying the connections between the law and gender as well as applying feminist analysis to concrete areas of law.Dalton, Claire, 'Where We Stand: Observations on the Situation of Feminist Legal Thought' in ''Feminist Legal Theory: Foundations'' ed. by by D. Kelly Weisberg (Temple University Press, 1993), ISBN 9781566390286 Dalton, Claire, 'Deconstructing Contract Doctrine' in ''Feminist Legal Theory: Readings in Law and Gender'' ed. by
Katharine T. Bartlett and Rosanne Kennedy (Harper Collins, 1992)''Feminist Legal Theory: Readings in Law and Gender'' ed. by Katharine T. Bartlett and Rosanne Kennedy (Harper Collins, 1992), ISBN 9780813312484
References
1. Cott, Nancy F. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987
2. Kent, Susan Kingsley. Making Peace: The Reconstruction of Gender in Interwar Britain. Princeton, N.J. 1993
3. Mitchell, Juliet. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: Freud, Reich, Laing, and Women. New York 1975
4. Stocking, George W. Jr. After Tylor: British Social Anthropology, 1888–1951. Madison, Wisconsin 1995
5. Le Deuxième Sexe (online edition)
6. Moi, Toril. What is a Woman? And Other Essays. Oxford 2000
7. Bergoffen, Debra B. The Philosophy of Simone de Beauvoir: Gendered Phenomenologies, Erotic Generosities. SUNY 1996 ISBN 0-7914-3151-7
8. Sullivan, Shannon. The work of Simone de Beauvoir: Introduction Journal of Speculative Philosophy 2000 14(2):v
9. Rich, Adrienne. Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution New York 1976
10. French, Marilyn. Beyond Power: On Women, Men, and Morals. New York 1985
11. Reed, Evelyn. Woman's Evolution: From Matriarchal Clan to Patriarchal Family. New York, 1975
12. Waring, Marilyn, ''If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics,''San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.
13. Nelson, Julie A., "Gender, Metaphor, and the Definition of Economics," ''Economics and Philosophy'' 8(1), 1992; McCloskey, D. N. "Some Consequences of a Conjective Economics" in ''Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics,'' ed. J.A. Nelson and M.A. Ferber, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. See also McCloskey critique.
14. Nelson, Julie A. and Marianne A. Ferber, ''Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics,'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
15. Power, Marilyn. "Social Provisioning as a Starting Point for Feminist Economics" ''Feminist Economics''. Volume 10, Number 3. Routledge, November 2004.
See also
★ Gender studies
★ Women's studies
★ Feminist anthropology
★ Liberal feminism
★ Radical feminism
★ Marxist feminism
★ Socialist feminism
External links
★ Feminist theory website (Center for Digital Discourse and Culture, Virginia Tech University)
★ Feminist Theories and Anthropology by Heidi Armbruster
★ [2] ''The Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational Structure'' (Seattle: Red Letter Press, 2001)
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