ETRUSCAN MYTHOLOGY

The Etruscans were a people of unknown origin living in Northern Italy, who were eventually integrated into Roman culture and politically became part of the Roman Republic. The Etruscans had both a religion and a supporting mythology. Both absorbed elements from the preceding native and Greek religions by which they were heavily influenced. Many Etruscan beliefs, customs and divinities became part of Roman culture, including the Roman pantheon.

Contents

Polytheistic belief system

Religious practices

Beliefs of the hereafter

Mythology

Mythological systems

List of Etruscan mythological figures

Notes

Bibliography

See also

External links

Polytheistic belief system

The Etruscan system of belief was an immanent polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power and that power was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the world of man and could be dissuaded or persuaded in favor of human affairs. Three layers are evident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the sun, Tivr, the moon, Selvans, a civil god, Turan, the goddess of love, Laran, the god of war, Leinth, the goddess of death, Maris, Thalna, Turms and the ever-popular Fufluns, whose name is related in some unknown way to the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus. Perhaps he was the god of the people.
Ruling over this panoply of lesser deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo-European system: Tin or Tinia, the sky, Uni his wife (Juno), and Cel, the earth goddess. In addition the Greek gods were taken into the Etruscan system: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Bacchus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in art motifs.

Religious practices

The Etruscans believed in intimate contact with divinity. They did nothing without proper consultation with the gods and signs from them. These practices, which we would view as superstition, were taken over in total by the Romans. A god was called an ''ais'' (later ''eis'') which in the plural is ''aisar''. Where they were was a ''fanu'' or ''luth'', a sacred place, such as a ''favi'', a grave or temple. There one would need to make a ''fler'' (plural ''flerchva'') "offering".
Around the ''mun'' or ''muni'', the tombs, were the ''man'' or ''mani'' (Latin ''Manes''), the souls of the ancestors. A deceased person travels to the underworld called ''Aita'' "Hades" and thus may be referred to as a ''hinthial'' (literally "(one who is) underneath"). A special magistrate, the ''cechase'', looked after the ''cecha'', or ''rath'', sacred things. Every man, however, had his religious responsibilities, which were expressed in an ''alumnathe'' or ''slecaches'', a sacred society. No public event was conducted without the ''netsvis'', the ''haruspex'', or his female equivalent, the ''nethsra''. They read the bumps on the liver of a properly sacrificed sheep. We have a model of a liver made of bronze, whose religious significance is still a matter of heated debate, marked into sections which perhaps are meant to explain what the bump in that region should mean. Divination through haruspicy is a tradition originating from the Fertile Crescent.

Beliefs of the hereafter

Like the Egyptians, the Etruscans believed in eternal life, but prosperity there was linked to funereal prosperity here. The tombs in many cases were better than many houses, with spacious chambers, wall frescoes and grave furniture. Most Etruscan tombs have been plundered. In the tomb, especially on the sarcophagus (examples shown below), was a representation of the dead person in his or her prime, probably as they wanted to be in the hereafter. Some of the statuary is the finest and most realistic of any. We have no problem visualizing the appearance of the Etruscans. They wanted us to see them smiling and intimate with their kith and kin around them, as we do.

Mythology

The mythology is attested by a number of sources.^[1]

Mythological systems

The primary trinity included Tinia, Uni and Menrva.

List of Etruscan mythological figures

The names below were taken mainly from Etruscan "picture bilinguals", which are Etruscan call-outs on art depicting mythological scenes or motifs. Several different media provide names. Variants of the names are given, reflecting differences in language in different localities and times.
Many of the names are Etruscan spellings (and pronunciations) of Greek names. The themes may or may not be entirely Greek. Etruscans frequently added their own themes to Greek myths. The same may be said of native Italic names rendered into Etruscan. Some names are entirely Etruscan. Which is which is often a topic of debate in the international forum of scholarship.
;Achlae: Greek river god, Achelous.The Bonfantes (2002), page 192.
;Achle, Achile: Legendary hero of the Trojan War, from the Greek Achilles.
;Achmemrun: Legendary king of Mycenaean Greece, from the Greek Agamemnon.
;Achrum, Acharum: Legendary Greek river of the underworld, the Acheron.The Bonfantes (2002), page 193.
;Achvizr, Achuvesr, Achuvizr, Achviztr: Unknown character associated with Turan.
;Aita, Eita: Greek god of the underworld and ruler of the dead, Hades.
;Aivas Tlamunus, Aivas Vilates: Also ''Eivas'' or ''Evas''. Etruscan equivalents of the Greek heroes Ajax, son of Telamon and Ajax, son of Oileus.
;Alchumena: The Greek legendary character, Alcmena.
;Alcstei, Alcsti: The Greek legendary character, Alcestis.
;Alichsantre, Alechsantre, Alcsentre, Elchsntre, Elachśantre, Elachśntre, Elcste: The Trojan legendary character, Alexandrus, otherwise known as Paris.Pallottino page 248.
;Alpan, Alpanu, Alpnu: Etruscan goddess, whose name is identical to Etruscan "willingly."
;Althaia: The Greek figure Althaea, mother of Meleager.
;Ani: Divinity named on the periphery of the Piacenza Liver as dominant in that section. It seems to correspond to Martianus Capella's Templum I, north, ruled by Janus, for which Ani appears to be the Etruscan word.^[2]
;Aminth: Etruscan winged deity in the form of a child, probably identified with Amor.The Bonfantes (2002), page 194.
;Amuce, Amuche, Amuke: The Greek legendary figure Amycus of the Argonauts myth.
;Apulu, Aplu: The Greek god, Apollo.
;Areatha: The Greek mythological figure, Ariadne.
;Aril: Etruscan deity identified with Atlas.
;Aritimi, Artumes: The Greek goddess Artemis.
;Ataiun: The Greek mythological figure, Actaeon.
;Athrpa: The Greek deity, Atropos.
;Atlenta, Atlnta: The Greek mythological person, Atalanta.
;Atmite: The Greek legendary character, Admetus.The Bonfantes (2002), page 195.
;Atunis: The Greek mythological figure, Adonis.
;Aturmica: The Greek mythological figure, Andromache, the Amazon.
;Aulunthe: Etruscan, the name of a satyr.
;Calaina: The Greek Nereid, Galena.
;Calanice: A Greek name of Hercle, Kallinikos.
;Calu: Etruscan infernal god of wolves, represented by a wolf.^[3]
;Capne, Kapne: The Greek legendary hero, Capaneus.
;Caśntra: Greek prophetess, Cassandra, of the Trojan War.
;Castur: Greek legendary figure, Castor.
;Catha, Cavtha, Cath: An Etruscan deity, god and goddess, not well represented in the art. She appears in the expression ''ati cath'', "Mother Cath"The Bonfantes (2002), page 196 and also ''maru Cathsc'', "the maru of Cath"; however, the nature of the ''maru'' is not known. She is also called ''śech'', "daughter,"^[4] which seems to fit Martianus Capella's identification of the ruler of Region VI of the sky as ''Celeritas solis filia'', "Celerity the daughter of the sun." In the Piacenza Liver the corresponding region is ruled by Cath.^[5]
;Catmite: The Greek mythological figure, Ganymede, from an alternative Greek spelling, Gadymedes.^[6] From the Etruscan is Latin Catamitus.
;Cel: Etruscan goddess, probably identified with Ge, as she had a giant for a son. Her name occurs in the expression ''ati Cel'', "Mother Cel."
;Celsclan: Etruscan Gigas, "son of Cel", identifying her as "Earth", as the giants in Greek mythology were the offspring of the earth.
;Cerca: Greek enchantress of the Odyssey, Circe.
;Chaluchasu: Translation of Greek panchalkos, "wholly of bronze", perhaps the robot of Crete, Talos.
;Charun, Charu: The Greek mythological figure, Charon.Swaddling & Bonfante page 78.
;Chelphun: An Etruscan satyr.
;Cilens: Also ''Celens''.
;Cluthumustha, Clutmsta: The Greek female legendary character, Clytemnestra.
;Crapsti: Umbrian local deity, Grabouie.
;Crisitha: The heroine of the Trojan War, the Greek name Chryseis.The Bonfantes (2002), page 203.
;Culsans: God of doors and doorways, corresponding to the two-faced Roman god Janus.
;Culsu: Also ''Cul''. A female underworld demon who was associated with gateways. Her attributes included a torch and scissors. She was often represented next to Culsans.
;Easun, Heasun. Heiasun: Etruscan version of the Greek legendary hero Jason.
;Ecapa: The Greek tragic heroine of the Trojan War, Hecuba.
;Ectur: Hero of the Trojan War, Hector.
;Elinei, Elinai, Elina: The Greek character Helen of Trojan War fame.
;Enie: Greek Enyo, one of the Graeae.
;Epiur, Epeur: Greek epiouros, "guardian", a boy presented to Tinia by Hercle, possibly Tages.The Bonfantes (2002) page 198.
;Ermania: Greek legendary character Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen.
;Eris: Greek divinity Eris.
;Erus: Greek divinity Eros.
;Esplace: Greek legendary healer, Asklepios.
;Ethausva, Eth: Etruscan goddess, attendant at the birth of Menrva.
;Etule: Greek Aitolos, confused with his brother, Epeios, who built the Trojan horse.
;Euturpa, Euterpe: The Greek divinity, Euterpe.
;Evan: An attendant on Turan, sometimes male, sometimes female.
;Evtucle, [Ev]thucle: The Greek hero, Eteocles.
;Feronia: An obscure rural goddess primarily known from the various Roman cults who worshipped her.^[7]
;Fufluns: Etruscan god of wine, identified with Dionysus. The name is used in the expressions ''Fufluns Pacha'' (Bacchus) and ''Fufluns Pachie.''^[8] Puplona (Populonia) was named from Fufluns.
;Hamphiare, Amphare: Legendary Greek seer, Amphiaraus.The Bonfantes (2002) page 199.
;Hathna: Etruscan satyr.
;Hercle, Hercele, Herecele, Herkle, Hrcle: Etruscan form of the legendary hero known to the Greeks as Hēraklēs and the Romans as Hercules.
;Hipece: The magic Greek spring, Hippocrene, represented in Etruscan art as a water spout in the form of a lion's head.
;Horta: Goddess of agriculture (highly conjectural).
;Ilithiia: The Greek goddess of childbirth, Eileithyia. Occurs also in the expression ''flereś atis ilithiial'', "statue of mother Eileithyia."
;Iynx: An Etruscan mythological creature, a bird of love.
;Laran: Etruscan God of war.The Bonfantes (2002), page 200.
;Lasa: One of a class of deities, plural ''Lasas'', mainly female, but sometimes male, from which the Roman Lares came. Where the latter were the guardians of the dead, the Etruscan originals formed the court of Turan. Lasa often precedes an epithet referring to a particular deity: ''Lasa Sitmica, Lasa Achununa, Lasa Racuneta, Lasa Thimrae, Lasa Vecuvia.''
;Lasa Vecuvia: Goddess of prophecy, associated with the nymph Vegoia.
;Latva: The Greek mythological person, Leda.
;Leinth: Etruscan divinity, male and female,^[9] possibly related to ''lein'', Etruscan word for "to die", but does not appear in any death scenes.
;Letham, Lethns, Letha, Lethms, Leta: An Etruscan infernal goddess.
;Letun: The Greek goddess, Leto.
;Lunc, Lnche: The Greek legendary figure, Lynceus.
;Malavisch: Etruscan divinity of the mirrors, probably from ''malena'', "mirror."The Bonfantes (2002), page 201.
;Man, Mani: Etruscan class of spirits representing "the dead"^[10] and yet not the same as a hinthial, "ghost." From the Mani came the Latin Manes, which are both "the good" and the deified spirits of the dead.^[11]
;Mania: Etruscan infernal deity, one of a dyad including Mantus.Pallottino, page 162. She went on into Latin literature, ruling beside Mantus and was reported to be the mother of the Lares and Manes.^[12] Under the Etruscan kings, she received the sacrifices of slain children during the Laralia festival of May 1.^[13] She continued to survive in post-classical Tuscan folklore as ''Mania della Notte'', a nocturnal spirit bringing nightmares.^[14]
;Mantus: Etruscan infernal deity, one of a dyad including Mania. A tradition of Latin literature^[15] names the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua, after the deity.
;Mariś: A class of divinity used with epithets: ''mariś turans, mariś husurnana, mariś menitla, mariś halna, mariś isminthians''. The appearances in art are varied: a man, a youth, a group of babies cared for by Menrva. The Roman god, Mars, is believed to have come from this name. Pallottino refers to the formation of a god by "... fusing groups of beings ... into one." Of Mars he says "... the protecting spirits of war, represented as armed heroes, tend to coalesce into a single deity, the Etrusco-Roman Mars, on the model of the Greek god Ares."^[16]
;Mean, Meanpe: Etruscan deity, equivalent of Nike or Victoria.
;Meleacr: The Greek legendary figure, Meleager.
;Memnum, Memrum: Memnon, a Trojan saved from Achle by his mother, Thesan.
;Menerva, Menrva: The Etruscan original to the Roman Minerva, made into Greek Athena.
;Menle: The Greek hero, Menelaus, of Trojan War fame.
;Metaia, Metua, Metvia: The Greek mythological character, Medea.
;Metus: The Gorgon, Medusa, of Greek mythology. The head appears on the Aegis of Menrva as a Gorgoneion.
;Mlacuch: A young Etruscan woman kidnapped by Hercle.The Bonfantes (2002), page 202.
;Nestur: The Greek legendary hero, Nestor.
;Nethuns: Italic divinity, probably Umbrian, of springs and water, identified with Greek Poseidon and Roman Neptune, from which the name comes.^[17] It occurs in the expression ''flere Nethuns'', "the divinity of Nethuns."^[18]
;Nortia: Goddess of fate and chance. Unattested in Etruscan texts but mentioned by Roman historian Livy.^[19] Her attribute was a nail, which was driven into a wall in her temple during the Etruscan new year festival as a fertility rite.
;Pacha: Greek Bacchus, an epithet of Fufluns.
;Palmithe, Talmithe: The Greek hero, Palamedes.
;Pantasila, Pentasila: The Greek name, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons.
;Patrucle: The Greek hero, Patroclus, of Trojan War fame.
;Pava Tarchies: Etruscan Tarchies in an expression: "boy Tarchies." See under Tarchies.
;Pecse, Pakste: The name of the Greek legendary winged horse, Pegasus, assigned by the Etruscans to the Trojan Horse.
;Pele: The Greek hero, Peleus.
;Pemphetru: Greek Pemphredo, one of the Graeae.The Bonfantes (2002) page 203.
;Perse, Pherse: The Greek legendary figure, Perseus.
;Phaun, Faun, Phamu: The Greek mythological character, Phaon.
;Phersipnai, Phersipnei, Proserpnai: Queen of the underworld, equivalent to the Greek Persephone and Roman Proserpina.
;Phersu: A divinity of the mask, probably from Greek prosopon, "face".^[20] The god becomes adjectival,
★ phersuna, from which Latin persona.
;Phuinis: The Greek Phoinix, friend of Peleus.
;Phulsphna: The Greek legendary figure, Polyxena.
;Prisis: The Greek Briseis mentioned in the Iliad.
;Priumne: Priam king of Troy.
;Prumathe: The Greek mythological figure Prometheus.The Bonfantes (2002) page 204.
;Puanea: Etruscan name of a satyr.
;Pultuce, Pulutuce, Pulutuke, Pultuke: The Greek mythological figure, Pollux.
;Rath: Etruscan deity identified with Apollo. Tarquinia was his sanctuary.
;Rathmtr: The Greek mythological character, Rhadamanthys.
;Satre: Etruscan deity, source of the Roman god, Saturn.
;Sime: An Etruscan satyr who has a Greek name.The Bonfantes (2002), page 205.
;Selvans: God who appears in the expression ''Selvansl Tularias'', "Selvans of the boundaries", which identifies him as a god of boundaries. The name is borrowed from the Roman god, Silvanus.
;Semla: The Greek goddess, Semele.
;Sethlans: Etruscan blacksmith and craftsman God, often wielding an axe. Equivalent to the Greek Hephaistos and Roman Vulcanus. See also under ''Velchans'' below.
;Sispe, Sisphe: The legendary Greek king, Sisyphus.
;Svutaf: A winged Etruscan deity whose name, if from the same Latin root as the second segment of persuade, might mean "yearning" and therefore be identifiable with Eros.
;Taitle: The Etruscan form of the Greek mythological figure Daedalus.The Bonfantes (2002), page 206.
;Tarchies: Occurs in Pava Tarchies, label of a central figure in depictions of divination, who, along with Epiur, a divinatory child, is believed to be the same as Tages, founder of the Etruscan religion, mentioned by Roman authors.
;Tarchon: An Etruscan culture hero who, with his brother, Tyrrhenus, founded the Etruscan Federation of twelve cities.
;Tecum: God of the ''lucomenes'', or ruling class.
;Techrs: From the Greek, the Trojan War hero, Teucer.
;Telmun, Tlamun, Talmun, Tlamu: A Greek legendary figure, the Argonaut, Telamon.
;Teriasals, Teriasa: Legendary Greek blind prophet, Tiresias.
;Thalna, Thalana, Talna: Etruscan divine figure of multiple roles shown male, female and androgynous: it attends the births of Menrva and Fufluns, dances as a Maenad and expounds prophecy. The name comes from Greek thallein, "to bloom". A number of divinities fit the etymology: Greek Thallo and Hebe and Roman Iuventas, "youth."^[21]
;Thanr: An Etruscan deity shown present at the births of deities.
;Thesan: Etruscan goddess of the dawn. She was identified with the Roman Aurora and Greek Eos.
;These: A hero who is the eqivalent of the Greek Theseus.
;Thethis: Greek nymph Thetis, mother of Achilles.
;Thetlvmth: Unknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.The Bonfantes (2002), page 174.
;Thufltha: Unknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.
;Tinia, Tina, Tin: Chief Etruscan god, the ruler of the skies, husband of Uni, and father of Hercle, identified with the Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter well within the Etruscan window of ascendance, as the Etruscan kings built the first temple of Jupiter at Rome. Called ''apa'', "father" in inscriptions (parallel to the -piter in Ju-piter), he has most of the attributes of his Indo-European counterpart, with whom some have postulated a more remote linguistic connection.^[22] The name means "day" in Etruscan. He is the god of boundaries and justice. He is depicted as a young, bearded male, seated or standing at the center of the scene, grasping a stock of thunderbolts. According to Latin literature, the bolts are of three types: for warning, good or bad interventions, and drastic catastrophes.De Grummond, Chapter IV. Unlike Zeus, Tin needs the permission of the Dii Consentes (consultant gods) and Dii Involuti (hidden gods) to wield the last two categories. A further epithet, Calusna (of Calu), hints at a connection to wolves or dogs and the underworld. In post-classical Tuscan folklore he became an evil spirit, Tigna, who causes lightening stikes, hail, rain, whirlwinds and mildew.^[23]
;Tinas cliniar: Etruscan expression, "sons of Tina", designating the Dioscuri, proving that Tin was identified with Zeus.
;Tiur: Etruscan deity identified with Greek Selene and Roman Luna.
;Tlusc, Tluscv, Mar Tlusc: Unknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.^[24] The corresponding region in Martianus Capella is ruled by Sancus, an Italic god and Sabine progenitor, who had a temple on the Quirinal Hill, and appears on an Etruscan boundary stone in the expression Selvans Sanchuneta, in which Sanchuneta seems to refer to the oaths establishing the boundary. Sancus probably comes from Latin sancire, "to ratify an oath."^[25]
;Truia, Truials: Troy, Trojan, the city of the Iliad.The Bonfantes (2002), page 178.
;Tuchulcha: An Etruscan demon.The Bonfantes (2002), page 208.
;Tuntle: The Greek legendary figure, Tyndareus.
;Turan: Etruscan goddess identified with Greek Aphrodite and Roman Venus. She appears in the expression, Turan ati, "Mother Turan", equivalent to Venus Genetrix. Her name is a noun meaning "the act of giving" in Etruscan, based on the verb stem ''tur-'' 'to give.'
;Turms, Turmś: Etruscan god identified with Greek Hermes and Roman Mercurius. In his capacity as guide to the ghost of Tiresias, who has been summoned by Odysseus, he is ''Turms Aitas'', "Turms Hades."
;Turnu: An Etruscan deity, a type of Eros, child of Turan.
;Tusna: Perhaps from
★ Turansna, "of Turan." The swan of Turan.
;Tute: The Greek hero, Tydeus.
;Tv[?]th: Unknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.
;Tyrrhenus: An Etruscan culture hero and twin brother of Tarchon.
;Uni: Supreme goddess of the Etruscan pantheon, wife of Tinia, mother of Hercle, and patroness of Perugia. With Tinia and Menrva, she was a member of the ruling triad of Etruscan deities. Uni was the equivalent of the Roman Juno, whose name ''Uni'' may be derived from, and the Greek Hera.
;Urphe: The Greek mythological figure, Orpheus.
;Urusthe: The Greek legendary character, Orestes.
;Usil: Etruscan deity identified with Greek Helios, Roman Sol.
;Vanth: Etruscan winged demon of the underworld often depicted in the company of Charun. She could be present at the moment of death, and frequenty acted as a guide of the deceased to the underworld.The Bonfantes (2002), page 210.^[26][27]
;Vea: Etruscan divinity, possibly taking its name from the city of Veii or vice versa.
;Vecu, Vecui, Vecuvia: The prophetic nymph, Vegoia. See under Lasa Vecuvia.
;Veltha, Velthume, Vethune, Veltune: Etruscan deity, possible state god of the Etruscan league of Etruria, the Voltumna in the Latin expression ''Fanum Voltumnae'', "shrine of Voltumna", which was their meeting place, believed located at Orvieto. The identification is based on reconstruction of a root
★ velthumna from Latin Voltumna, Vertumnus and Voltumnus of literary sources, probably from Etruscan veltha, "earth" or "field." Representations of a bearded male with a long spear suggest Velthune may be an epithet of Tinia.^[28]
;Veiove, Veive, Vetis: Etruscan infernal deity whose temple stood at Rome near the Capitoline Hill. The identification is made from the deity's Latin names related by a number of ancient authors over the centuries: 'Vēi, Vēdi, Vēdii, Veiovis, Vediovis, Vediiovis, Vedius.'^[29]
;Velparun: The Greek hero, Elpenor.
'Vesuna: Italic goddess mentioned also in the Iguvine Tables.
;Vikare: Son of Taitle, derived from the Greek mythological figure Icarus.^[30] The name is found inscribed once, on a golden bulla dating to the 5th century BCE now housed at the Walters Art Museum^[31].
;Vile, Vilae: Greek Iolaos, nephew of Hercle.

Notes

1. For example, inscriptions and engraved scenes on the Praenestine ''cistae'' (see under Etruscan language), and on the ''specula''. Currently some two dozen fascicles of the ''Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum'' have been published. Specifically Etruscan mythological and cult figures appear in the ''Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae''. Etruscan inscriptions have recently been given a more authoritative presentation by Helmut Rix, ''Etruskische Texte''.
2. Rykwert page 140. The liver and a list of names is depicted in Hooper & Schwartz page 223.
3. De Grummond page 55.
4. De Grummond page 105.
5. Thulin pages 50 and 65.
6. J.N. Adams page 163.
7. Titus Livius, ''Ab urbe condita'' book 1, chapter 30, section 5
8. Leland, Chapter IV, ''Faflon.''
9. De Grummond page 21.
10. Bonfante 2000 page 60.
11. Smith's ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'' gives a good summary of the ancient sources on Manes, which can be read at [1], the ancientlibrary.com site.
12. For a summary of her classical life, see Seyffert's ''Dictionary of Classical Antiquities'' under Mania, online at [2] ancientlibrary.com.
13. Summers, page 24, quotes Macrobius, Saturnalia I vii on this topic.
14. Leland Part I Chapter 2. Leland points out that the name is not related to Greek mania.
15. Virgil Aeneid Book X lines 199-200 says that it was named after the prophetess Manto, but Servius' gloss on Line 199 says that the city was named after Mantus and that he was Dispater, which corresponds to Aulus Caecina's view that Tarchon dedicated all the Etruscan cities of the Po valley to Dispater. De Grummond, pages 141, 205.
16. Page 159.
17. De Grummond page 59.
18. Bonnefoy page 30.
19. Livy vii. 3. 7
20. The face theory is presented, among other reputable sources, by Eric Partridge, ''Origins'', ISBN 0-517-414252.
21. De Grummond pages 152-153.
22. ''The Nostratic Macrofamily: a Study in Distant Linguistic Relationships,'' (1994) Allan R. Bornhard and John C. Kerns, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3110139006, page 304, previewed on Google Books.
23. Leland Part I Chapter I.
24. Thulin page 59.
25. De Grummond, page 50, features a diagram comparing Capella and the liver, while page 149 presents the boundary stone.
26. de Grummond, pages 220-225.
27. Swaddling & Bonfante page 78.
28. A good development of the concept can be found in Harmon.
29. Lewis & Short, ''Latin Lexicon'', available online at www.perseus.com.
30. Swaddling & Bonfante page 42.
31. https://www.thewalters.org/works_of_art/itemdetails.aspx?aid=125

Bibliography

★ Bilingualism and the Latin Language, Adams, J. N., , , Cambridge University Press, , Available for preview on Google Books.

★ The Etruscan Language: an Introduction, , Giuliano, Bonfante, University of Manchester Press, 2002, ISBN 0-7190-5540-7 Preview available on Google Books.

★ Roman and European Mythologies, Bonnefoy, Yves, , , University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0226064557 Translated by Wendy Doniger, Gerald Honigsblum. Preview Google Books.

★ Etruscan Mythology, Sacred History and Legend: An Introduction, De Grummond, Nancy Thomson, , , University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology, , Preview available on Google Books.

★ Available in the Gazeteer of Bill Thayer's Website at ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>/home.html

★ Preview shown on Google Books.

★ Roman Letters: History from a Personal Point of View, Hooper, Finley and Schwartz, Matthew, , , Wayne State University Press, ,

★ Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition, Leland, Charles Godfrey, , , T. Fisher Unwin, , Downloadable Google Books, online at [3].

★ The Vampire in Lore and Legend, Summers, Montague, , , Courier Dover Publications, 2001, ISBN 0486419428 Preview Google Books.

★ The Etruscans, , , Pallottino, M., Penguin Books, 1975,

★ The Etruscans: Their Art and Civilization'', Richardson, Emeline Hill, , , University of Chicago Press, ,

★ The Idea of a Town: the Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World, Rykwert, Joseph, , , MIT Press, , Preview available on Google Books.

★ Etruscan Myths, Swaddling, Judith, and Bonfante, Larissa, , , University of Texas Press, 2006, ISBN 0292706065 Preview Google Books.

★ Die Götter des Martianus Capella und der Bronzeleber von Piacenza, Thulin, Carl, , , Alfred Töpelmann, , A German-language book, downloadable from Google Books.

See also

★ Greek deities and their Roman and Etruscan counterparts

External links