ERITREAN-ETHIOPIAN WAR

The 'Eritrean-Ethiopian War' took place from May 1998 to June 2000 between Ethiopia and Eritrea, forming one of the conflicts in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea and Ethiopia - two of the world's poorest countries - spent hundreds of millions of dollars on the warWill arms ban slow war? BBC 18 May 2000^[11] and suffered the loss of tens of thousands of their citizens killed or wounded as a direct consequence of the conflict,Tens of thousands

★ Eritrea: Final deal with Ethiopia BBC 4 December, 2000

★ Eritrea orders Westerners in UN mission out in 10 days, International Herald Tribune, 7 December, 2005 which resulted in minor border changes.

Prelude

From 1961 until 1991, Eritrea had fought a long war of independence against Ethiopia, ultimately leading to a referendum and peaceful separation in 1993. Following independence, the two neighbours disagreed over currency and trade issues, and both laid claim to several border regions including Badme, Tsorona-Zalambessa, and Bure. However, since the two governments were close allies they agreed to set up a commission to look into their common border and disputed places. Since early 1991 they had agreed to set up a commission to look into each others' claims.^[12]
Of particular issue was the border through the Badme Plain. As a result of the Treaty of 1902 the Badme Plain is bisected by the border which runs in a straight line between the Gash and Setit (Tekezé) Rivers.^[13]

War

Chronology

On 6 May, 1998, a few Eritrean soldiers entered the Badme region, a disputed zone, along the border of Eritrea and Ethiopia's northern Tigray Region, resulting in a fire fight between the Eritrean soldiers and the Tigrayan militia and security police they encountered.^[14]''Brothers at War: Making Sense of the Eritrean-Ethiopian War (Eastern African Series)'' by T. Negash, K. Tronvoll, Ohio University Press ISBN 0821413724.
On May 13, 1998 Ethiopia, in what Eritrean radio described as a "total war" policy, mobilized its forces for a full assault against Eritrea.World: Africa Eritrea: 'Ethiopia pursues total war' BBC June 6, 1998 The Claims Commission found that this was in essence an affirmation of the existence of a state of war between belligerents not a declaration of war and that Ethiopia also notified the United Nations Security Council, as required under Article 51 of the UN Charter.^[15]

The fighting quickly escalated to exchanges of artillery and tank fire leading to four weeks of intense fighting. Ground troops fought on three fronts. On 5 June 1998, the Ethiopians launched air attacks on the airport in Asmara and the Eritreans retaliated by attacking the Ethiopian town of Mekele. These raids caused civilian casualties and deaths on both sides of the border.^[16]^[17] ¹³
There was then a lull as both sides mobilized huge forces along their common border and dug extensive trenches. Ethiopia's push north BBC 20 May, 2000 Both countries spent several hundred million dollars on new military equipment.Will arms ban slow war? BBC 18 May 2000 This was despite the peace mediation efforts by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the US/Rwanda peace plan that was in the works. The US/Rwanda was a four point peace plan that called for withdrawal of both forces to pre-June 1998 positions. Eritrea refused and instead demanded for demilitarization of all disputed areas along the common border overseen by a neutral monitoring force and direct talks. ^[18]^[19]
With Eritrea's refusal to accept the US/Rwanda peace plan, on 22 February 1999, Ethiopia launched a massive military offensive to recapture Badme. Tension had been high since February 6, 1999, When Ethiopia claimed that Eritrea had violated the moratorium on air raids by bombing Adigrat, a claim it later withdrew.^[20]
Following the first five days of military set back at Badme, by which time Ethiopia broken through Eritrea's fortified front and was 10 kilometers (six miles) deep into Eritrean territory, Eritrea accepted the OAU peace plan on 27 February 1999.Ethiopia declares victory BBC 1 March, 1999^[21]. Ethopia did not immediately stop its advance because it demanded that peace talks be contingent on an Eritrean withdrawal from territory occupied since the first outbreak of fighting. Ethiopia launched an offensive that broke through the Eritrean lines between Shambuko and Mendefera, crossed the Mareb River, and cut the road between Barentu and Mendefera, the main supply line for Eritrean troops on the western front of the fighting.^[22]
By May 2000, Ethiopia occupied about a quarter of Eritrea's territory, displacing 650,000 peopleEritrean, Ethiopian exchange of POWs begins CNN 23 December, 2000 and destroying key components of Eritrea's infrastructure. The Eritreans evacuated the disputed border town of Zalambessa and other disputed areas on the central front claiming it was a 'tactical retreat' to take away one of Ethiopia's last remaining excuses for continuing the war.Eritrea's 'tactical retreat' BBC 26 May, 2000 Having recaptured the most of the contested territories — and heard that Eritrean government in accordance with a request from the Organisation of African Unity would withdraw from any other territories it occupied at the start of fighting — on 25 May 2000, Ethiopia declared the war was over.Ethiopia says 'war is over' BBC 31 May, 2000Tran, Mark. Ethiopia declares victory over Eritrea, The Guardian Unlimited, [May 25, 2000
The widespread use of trenches has resulted in comparisons of the conflict to the trench warfare of World War I. This trench warfare led to the loss of "...thousands of young lives in human-wave assaults on Eritrea's positions..."^[23] The Eritrean defences were eventually overtaken by a surprise Ethiopian pincer movement on the Western front, attacking a mined, but lightly defended mountain (without trenches), resulting in the capture of Barentu and an Eritrean retreat. The element of surprise in the attack involved the use of donkeys as pack animals as well as being a solely infantry affair, with tanks coming in to secure the area only later.^[24]

Regional destabilisation

The fighting also spread to Somalia as both governments tried to out flank one another. The Eritrean government began supporting the Oromo Liberation Front, a rebel group seeking independence of Oromia from Ethiopia that was based in a part of Somalia controlled by Somali warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid.^[25] Ethiopia retaliated by supporting groups in southern Somalia who were opposed to Aidid, and by renewing relations with the Islamic regime in Sudan – which is accused of supporting the Eritrean Islamic Salvation, a Sudan-based group that had launched attacks in the Eritrea-Sudan border region – while also lending support to various Eritrean rebel groups including a group known as the Eritrean Islamic Jihad.The Somali connection BBC 23 July, 1999^[26]

Casualties, displacement and economic disruption

Eritrea claimed that 19,000 Eritrean soldiers were killed during the conflict,^[27] while Ethiopia is reported to have had up to 123,000 soldiers killed principally in the two major assaults in February-June 1999 and May-June 2000.^[28] Both these figures have been contested and some news reports simply state that "tens of thousands" or "as many as 100,000" were killed in the war.Tens of thousands

★ Eritrea: Final deal with Ethiopia BBC 4 December, 2000

★ Eritrea orders Westerners in UN mission out in 10 days, International Herald Tribune, 7 December, 2005
The fighting led to massive internal displacement in both countries as civilians fled the war zone. Ethiopia expelled 77,000 Eritreans and Ethiopians of Eritrean origin it deemed to be security risk, thus compounding Eritrea's refugee problem. ^[29] ^[30] Majority of the 77,000 Eritrean and Ethiopians of Eritrean origins were considered well off by the standard of Ethiopian standard living and deporteeing them all after confiscating their belonging was a cruel act of human rights violations. ^[31]
The economies of both countries were already weak as a result of decades of cold war politics, civil war and drought. The war exacerbated these problems, resulting in food shortages. Prior to the war, much of Eritrea's trade was with Ethiopia, and much of Ethiopia's foreign trade relied on Eritrean roads and ports.

Aftermath

Cessation of hostilities

On 18 June 2000, the parties agreed to a comprehensive peace agreement and binding arbitration of their disputes under the Algiers Agreement. A 25-kilometer-wide Temporary Security Zone was established within Eritrea, patrolled by United Nations peacekeeping forces from over 60 countries (the United Nations Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia, or UNMEE). On 12 December 2000 a peace agreement was signed by the two governments.^[32]
On 13 April 2002, the Boundary Commission established under the Algiers Agreement in collaboration with The Hague Court agreed upon a "final and binding" verdict. The ruling awarded some territory to each side, but Badme (the flash point of the conflict) was awarded to Eritrea.Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, website of the United Nations Both countries vowed to accept the decision wholeheartedly the day after the ruling was made official.^[33] A few months later Ethiopia requested clarifications, then stated it was deeply dissatisfied with the ruling.^[34]^[35]^[36] In September 2003 Eritrea refused to agree to a new commission,Staff. Eritrea firm over disputed border ruling BBC, 25 September, 2003 which they would have had to agree to if the old binding agreement was to be set aside, and asked the international community to put pressure on Ethiopia to accept the ruling. In November 2004, Ethiopia accepts the ruling "in principle".^[37]
On 10 December 2005, Ethiopia announced it was withdrawing some of its forces from the Eritrean border "in the interests of peace".^[38] Then, on 15 December the United Nations began to withdraw peacekeepers from Eritrea in response to a UN resolution passed the previous day.^[39]
On 21 December, 2005, a commission at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague ruled that Eritrea broke international law when it attacked Ethiopia in 1998, triggering the broader conflict.^[40]
Ethiopia and Eritrea have since remobilized troops along the border, and as of 2006, there is new fear that the two countries could return to war.^[41]^[42] On 7 December 2005, Eritrea banned UN helicopter flights and ordered Western members (particularly from the United States, Canada, Europe and Russia) of the UN peacekeeping mission on its border with Ethiopia to leave within 10 days, sparking concerns of further conflict with its neighbour.^[43] In November 2006 Ethiopia and Eritrea boycotted a boundary commission meeting at The Hague which would have demarcate their disputed border using UN maps. Ethiopia was not there because it does not accept the decision and as it will not allow physical demarcation it will not accept map demarcation, and Eritrea was not there because although it backs the commission's proposals, it insists that the border should be physically marked out.^[44]

Arbitration

As agreed in the Algiers Agreement, the two parties presented their case at the Permanent Court of Arbitration to two different Commissions:
1. Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission
Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission ruled that Badme lies in Eritrea.
2. Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission
In July 2001 the Commission sat to decide its jurisdiction, procedures and possible remedies. The result of this sitting was issued on August 2001. In October 2001, following consultations with the Parties, the Commission adopted its Rules of Procedure. In December 2001 the Parties filed their claims with the Commission. The claims filed by the Parties relate to such matters as the conduct of military operations in the front zones, the treatment of POWs and of civilians and their property, diplomatic immunities and the economic impact of certain government actions during the conflict. At the end of 2005 final awards have been issued on claims on Pensions, and Ports. Partial awards have been issued for claims about: Prisoners of War, the Central Front, Civilians Claims, the Western and Eastern Fronts, Diplomatic, Economic and property losses, and ''Jus Ad Bellum''.
The Ethiopia-Eritrean claim committee ruled that:

References

★ Banks, Arthur; Muller, Thomas; and Overstreet, William, ed. ''Political Handbook of the World 2005-6'' (A Division of Congressional Quarterly, Inc.: Washington, D.C., 2005), p.366. 156802952-7

Footnotes

1. David Hamilton Shinn, ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia''. The Scarecrow Press, inc.: Lanham, Maryland; Toronto; Oxford, 2004, pp.387-8.
2. Claimed by President Isaias Afeworki, 2001. Shinn, ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'', p.149
3. Eritrea reveals human cost of war
4. Banks, Arthur; Muller, Thomas; and Overstreet, William, ed. ''Political Handbook of the World 2005-6'' (A Division of Congressional Quarterly, Inc.: Washington, D.C., 2005), p.366. 156802952-7
5. Claimed by Chief of Staffs of ENDF, Tsadkan Gebre-Tensae. Shinn, ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'', p. 149.
6. Claimed by Chief of Staffs Tsadkan Gebre-Tensae. Shinn, ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'', p. 149.
7. Banks et al., ed. ''Political Handbook 2005-6'', p.378.
8. Claimed by Major General Samora Yunis. Shinn, ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'', p. 149.
9. Claimed on 8 April 2002 by the Voice of the Democratic Path of Ethiopian Unity, an Ethiopian clandestine opposition group operating from Germany. The claim also stated that each family that lost a member in the war would receive 0 in indemnity, but this number has not been verified, although it has been often cited by other groups (see Number of war dead soldiers reportedly 123,000 – internet news message; and clandestineradio.com audio button), and no indemnities have been paid as of 2007. Shinn, ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'', p. 149
10. Ethiopia: Number of war dead soldiers reportedly 123,000
11. Ethiopia rejects war criticism
12. The Cause of the Eritrean-Ethiopian Border Conflict
13. Ethiopia's War on Eritrea, , , , Sabur Printing Services, 1999,
14. Richard Dowden ''COMMENT: There are no winners in this insane and destructive war'', The Independent, June 2, 2000 (N.B. this is an unverified copy of the article on the findarticle website)
15. Jus Ad Bellum Ethiopia’s Claims 1–8(pdf) Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission Page 6. Paragraph 17 (A commentary on Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission findings)
16. Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal, speaking for the British government in the Eritrea and Ethiopia debate, House of Lords, (Hansard) 30 November 1999 : Column 802
17. http://www.pca-cpa.org/ENGLISH/RPC/EECC/ET%20Partial%20Award.pdf SEE# 101
18. Ethiopia-Eritrea: New peace efforts, claims of rights abuse
19. http://www.hrw.org/worldreport99/africa/ethiopia3.html
20. Ethiopian Leader admits allegation of Eritrean air strike based "on wrong information"
21. Eritrea accepts peace deal after Ethiopian incursion
22. Ethiopia's war strategy BBC 19 May, 2000
23. Peace Deal May Be Near for Ethiopia and Eritrea Ian Fisher
24. Eritrean independence celebrations muted as Ethiopian troops advance, CNN, May 22, 2000.
25. Ethiopia and Eritrea in UN & Conflict Monitor Issue 4, Africa E-S. On website of Bradford University citing The Financial Times 9 June 1999
26. Angel Rabasa, ''et al'', Beyond al-Qaeda: Part 2, The Outer Rings of the Terrorist Universe RAND Project AIR FORCE RAND Corporation pp. 82-85 online pp. 44-47 hardcopy
27. Eritrean KIA

★ Eritrea reveals human cost of war BBC, 20 June, 2001

★ A Statistical Report of Eritrea's Casualties in the Eritrea-Ethiopia Border War (1998-2000) published by Awate Foundation, P.O. Box 580312, Elk Grove, CA, 95758-0006 U.S.A.
28. Ethiopian KIA

★ Banks et al., ed. ''Political Handbook 2005-6'', p.378. up to 60,000 KIA

★ Ethiopia: International Relations And Defense in The Somaliland Times reporduces an article from The Economist Intelligence Unit dated 25 October 2005 "EIU ViewsWire Ethiopia". The authenticity of the Somaliland Times article has not been crossed checked with The Economist web site.

★ This news archive page at the web site of the Oromo Liberation Front links to an article "Ethiopia: Number of war dead soldiers reportedly 123,000" by the FT, quoting as a source: BBC Monitoring Service. The FT website is a subscription one and the article still has to be verified.
29. Human Rights Developments
30. A critical look into the Ethiopian elections
31. http://denden.com/Conflict/deportees/klein-0898.htm
32. Staff. Horn peace deal: Full text BBC, 11 December 2000. "Agreement between the Government of the State of Eritrea and the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia"
33. Ethiopia and Eritrea claim border victory
34. Bhalla, Nita. Badme: Village in no man's land, BBC, 22 April, 2002
35. Ethiopian official wants border clarification ,BBC, 23 April, 2002
36. Plaut, Martin. Crucial Horn border talks, BBC, 17 September, 2003
37. Staff. Ethiopia backs down over border, BBC,

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ERITREAN-ETHIOPIAN WAR

Prelude

War

Chronology

Regional destabilisation

Casualties, displacement and economic disruption

Aftermath

Cessation of hostilities

Arbitration

References

Further reading

Footnotes

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