The 'English' (from
Old English ''
Ænglisc'') are a
nation and
ethnic group native to
England and speak
English. The largest single population of English people reside in England — the largest
constituent country of the
United Kingdom.
[1]
Definitions
Writing about the "English people" is complicated because England has historically been settled by several waves of invaders and immigrants, and has also spread its influence, and its populace, worldwide. Hence, some writers use the term to refer to a perceived English ethnic group that shares a common ancestry. Others use it more broadly to refer to the 'English nation', which comprises anyone who considers themselves English and are considered English by most other people.
The English as an ethnic group
It is difficult to clearly define English ethnicity, owing to the close interactions between the English and their neighbours in the
British Isles, and the waves of immigration that have added to England's gene pool for thousands of years. The ''
Oxford English Dictionary (OED)'' states that the earliest recorded sense of the word 'English' is "Of or belonging to the group of
Teutonic peoples collectively known as the ''Angelcynn'' [...] comprising the
Angles,
Saxons, and
Jutes, who settled in Britain during the
5th c.". However, the ''OED'' continues that "With the incorporation of the
Celtic and
Scandinavian elements of the population into the ‘English’ people, the
adj. came in the
11th c. to be applied to all natives of ‘England’, whatever their ancestry." The only exception was the period following the
Norman Conquest, when "English" was "for a time restricted to those whose ancestors were settled in England before the Conquest".
[2]
Thus, according to the ''OED's definition, "English" today simply means anyone born in England. However, this inclusive definition contrasts with the attitudes of those who see important ethnic differences between people with long-standing English ancestry and people whose ancestors arrived more recently: in
Sarah Kane's play ''
Blasted'' the character Ian boasts "I'm not an import", contrasting himself with the children of immigrants: "they have their kids, call them English, they're not English, born in England don't make you English".
[3]
It is unclear how many people in the UK consider themselves ethnically English. In the
2001 UK census, respondents were invited to state their ethnicity, but while there were
tick boxes for '
Irish' and for '
Scottish', there were none for 'English' or '
Welsh', who were subsumed into the general heading 'White British'.
[4] Following complaints about this, the 2011 census will "allow respondents to record their English, Welsh, Scottish, Northern Irish, Irish or other identity."
[5]
A further complication is England's dominant position within the
United Kingdom, which has resulted in the terms 'English' and 'British' often being used interchangeably.
[6] Relatedly, studies of people with English ancestry have shown that they tend not to regard themselves as an ethnic group, even when they live in other countries. Patricia Greenhill studied people in
Canada with English heritage, and found that they did not think of themselves as "ethnic", but rather as "normal" or "mainstream", an attitude Greenhill attributes to the cultural dominance of the English in Canada.
[7] Writer
Paul Johnson has suggested that like most dominant groups, the English have only demonstrated interest in their self-definition when they were feeling oppressed.
[8]
Despite these complexities, some
genetic and
demographic studies have utilized the concept of English ethnicity. In 2006, Richard Webber, also of University College, studied the ethnic variety of the UK (via names rather than genetics) and found that "
Ripley in Derbyshire is the “most English” place in England with "88.58% of residents having an English ethnic background", whereas "
Southall in west London has the least English gene pool — just 17.82% of residents in the area nicknamed 'little India' are of English ethnic origin."
[9]
The English as a nation
The term "the English people" can also be used more inclusively to discuss the English as a "nation" rather than an ethnic group, using the ''OED's definition of "nation" as a group united by factors that include "language, culture, history, or occupation of the same territory", rather than ancestral ties alone.
[10]
The concept of an 'English nation' (as opposed to a British one) has become increasingly popular after the
devolution process in
Scotland,
Wales and
Northern Ireland resulted in the four nations having semi-independent political and legal systems. Although England itself still lacks self-government, the 1990s witnessed a rise in English self-consciousness .
[11] While there can be an ethnic component to expressions of English national identity, most political
English nationalists do not consider Englishness to be genetic. For example, the
English Democrats Party states that "We do not claim Englishness to be purely ethnic or purely cultural, but it is a complex mix of the two. We firmly believe Englishness is a state of mind",
[12] while the
Campaign for an English Parliament says, "The people of England includes everyone who considers this ancient land to be their home and future regardless of ethnicity, race, religion or culture".
[13]
In an article for ''
The Guardian'', novelist
Andrea Levy (born in London to
Jamaican parents) calls England a separate country "without any doubt" and asserts that she is "English. Born and bred, as the saying goes. (As far as I can remember, it is born and bred and not born-and-bred-with-a-very-long-line-of-white-ancestors-directly-descended-from-Anglo-Saxons.)" Arguing that "England has never been an exclusive club, but rather a hybrid nation", she writes that "Englishness must never be allowed to attach itself to ethnicity. The majority of English people are white, but some are not ... Let England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland be nations that are plural and inclusive."
[14]
However, this use of the word "English" is complicated by the fact that most non-white people in England have a greater allegiance to Britain as a whole than to England. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the
Office of National Statistics compared the ''ethnic'' identities of British people with their perceived ''national'' identity. They found that while 58% of white people described their nationality as "English", the vast majority of non-white people called themselves "British". For example, "78 per cent of
Bangladeshis said they were British, while only 5 per cent said they were English, Scottish or Welsh", and the largest percentage of non-whites to identify as English were the people who described their ethnicity as "
Mixed" (37%).
[15]
History
Overview
The term 'English people' is not normally used to refer to the earliest inhabitants of England:
Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers,
Celtic Britons, and
Roman colonists. Instead it refers to a heritage that begins with the arrival of the
Anglo-Saxons in the
5th century who settled lands already inhabited by Romano-British tribes. That heritage then comes to include later arrivals, including
Scandinavians,
Normans, and other groups, as well as those Romano-Britons who still lived in England.
[16]
The Anglo-Saxons and previous inhabitants
The first people to be called 'English' were the
Anglo-Saxons, who are believed to originate from
Germanic tribes that migrated to England from southern
Denmark and northern
Germany in the
5th century AD after the Romans retreated from Britain. It has been suggested that the settlement of Germanic immigrants and Germanic
auxiliary troops in the Roman army may have begun long before the departure of the Roman legions in AD 410; indeed Germanic auxiliary troops may even have been involved in the Roman invasion of the island in the 1st century A.D.;
[17] the same process occurred in many other provinces along the Roman border with the ''Germani'', and Germanic tribes accepted as ''
foederati''. Either way, the Anglo-Saxons gave their name to England (Angle-land) and to the English people.
However, the Anglo-Saxons arrived in a land that was already populated by people commonly referred to as the '
Romano-British', the descendants of the native Brythonic-speaking
Celtic population that lived in the area of Britain under Roman rule during the 1st-5th centuries AD. Furthermore, the multi-ethnic nature of the Roman Empire meant that other peoples were also present in England before the Anglo-Saxons arrived: for example,
archaeological discoveries suggest that North Africans may have had a limited presence (popular historians sometimes refer to these people as "black",
[18][19] although this description is debatable since not all North Africans are black).
The exact nature of the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and their relationship with the Romano-British is a matter of debate. Traditionally, it was believed that a mass invasion by various Anglo-Saxon tribes largely displaced the indigenous British population in southern and eastern
Great Britain (modern day England), except in
Cornwall. However, archaeologists and historians have found minimal evidence for this: archaeologist
Francis Pryor has stated that he "can't see any evidence for ''bona fide'' mass migrations after the
Neolithic."
[20] Historian Malcolm Todd writes
:"It is much more likely that a large proportion of the British population remained in place and was progressively dominated by a Germanic aristocracy, in some cases marrying into it and leaving Celtic names in the, admittedly very dubious, early lists of Anglo-Saxon dynasties. But how we identify the surviving Britons in areas of predominantly Anglo-Saxon settlement, either archaeologically or linguistically, is still one of the deepest problems of early English history."
[21]
Geneticists have explored the relationship between Anglo-Saxons and Britons by studying the
Y-chromosomes of men in present day English towns. In
2002, a study by Weale ''et al'' found a considerable genetic difference between test subjects from
market towns in England and Wales, and that the English subjects were, on average closer genetically to the
Frisians of the
Netherlands than they were to their Welsh neighbours. This conclusion seemed to indicate that the Anglo-Saxons purged England of its previous inhabitants.
[22] A 2006 study led by Mark Thomas used computer simulations to find a possible reason for the divergence between these finds and the archaeological record. They concluded that the likeliest explanation was that the Anglo-Saxons operated an
apartheid-like system, preventing intermarriage between Britons and Anglo-Saxons and asserting political dominance.
[23]
Other geneticists tell a different story. A follow-up study to Weale ''et al'' in
2003 by Christian Capelli ''et al'' complicated Weale's conclusions, indicating that different parts of England received different levels of intrusion from outsiders: while
central and
eastern England experienced a high level of intrusion from
continental Europe (the study could not distinguish Germans from Danes and Frisians), southern England did not and the population there appears to be largely descended from the indigenous Britons (the scientists acknowledge that this conclusion is "startling"). The 2003 study also noted that the transition between England and Wales is more gradual than the earlier study suggested.
[24] Stephen Oppenheimer has argued that the majority of English people, much like the other populations within the
British Isles, have some genetic relationship to the original hunter-gatherers who settled Britain between 15,000 and 7,500 years ago, after the last
Ice Age.
[25]
The Danish Vikings and the unification of the English
Southern Great Britain in AD 600 after the Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple
petty kingdoms.
The English population was not politically unified until the
ninth century. Before then, it consisted of a number of
petty kingdoms which gradually coalesced into a
Heptarchy of seven powerful states, the most powerful of which were
Mercia and
Wessex. The English
nation state began to form when the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united against Danish Viking invasions, which began around
800 AD. Over the following century and a half England was for the most part a politically unified entity, and remained permanently so after
959.
At first, the Vikings were very much considered a separate people from the English. This separation was enshrined when
Alfred the Great signed the
Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum to establish the
Danelaw, a division of England between English and Danish rule, with the Danes occupying northern and eastern England.
[26] However, Alfred's successors subsequently won military victories against the Danes, incorporating much of the Danelaw into the nascent kingdom of England.
The
nation of England was formed in
937 by
Athelstan of
Wessex after the
Battle of Brunanburh,
[27][28] as Wessex grew from a relatively small kingdom in the South West to become the founder of the Kingdom of the English, incorporating all
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the
Danelaw.
[29] Danish invasions continued into the
11th century, and there were both English and Danish kings in the period following the unification of England (for example,
Ethelred the Unready was English but
Canute the Great was Danish).
Gradually, the Danes in England came to be seen as 'English'. They had a noticeable impact on the
English language: many English words, such as ''dream'' are of
Old Norse origin
[30], and place names that include ''thwaite'' and ''by'' are Scandinavian in origin.
[31] A 2003 genetic study of people in selected towns across the UK towns found similarities with Danish genetic profiles in all the English and Scottish sites that they tested.
[24]
Normans and Angevins
The
Norman Conquest of
1066 brought Anglo-Saxon and Danish rule of England to an end, as the new
Norman elite almost universally replaced the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and church leaders. After the conquest, the term "English people" normally included all natives of England, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian or Celtic ancestry, as it and was used in opposition to the Norman invaders, who were regarded as "French" even if born in England, for a generation or two after the Conquest.
[33] The Norman dynasty ruled England for 87 years until the death of
King Stephen in 1154, when the succession passed to
Henry II, of the
Angevin French
House of Plantagenet, which ruled until
1399.
The Norman aristocracy used
Anglo-Norman as the language of the court, law and administration. It continued to be used by the Plantagenet kings. However, over time the English language became more important even in the court, and the French were gradually assimilated into the English people, until, by the late 1200s, both rulers and subjects regarded themselves as English and spoke the English language.
Despite the assimilation of the French, the distinction between 'English' and 'French' survived in official documents long after it had fallen out of common use, in particular in the legal phrase ''
Presentment of Englishry'' (a rule by which a
hundred had to prove an unidentified murdered body found on their soil to be that of an Englishman, rather than a Norman, if they wanted to avoid a fine).
[34]
Late Middle Ages to present
The
Population of England was at 2.5 million after the
Black Death (1348).
It doubled to 5 million in 250 years (by 1600), and again, to 10 million, in another 215 years (by 1815). Population tripled over the 19th century, and at the end of the
First World War, English population numbered about 35 million.
There has been a Jewish community in England since Roman times, although from 1290 until
Oliver Cromwell's
resettlement of the Jews in 1656, this was forced to be small and hidden. From that time up to the present there have been waves of Jewish immigration from persecution in Russia in the nineteenth century and Germany in the twentieth. ( See
History of the Jews in England) This has produced many
notable people, including the
Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli,
[35]the first Prime Minister of Jewish parentage (but not Faith).
Irish immigration has also added a significant contribution to the English populace over the past few centuries due to sustained and sometimes mass exodus emigration from Ireland. Current estimates place around 6 million people in the UK with at least one grandparent born in the
Republic of Ireland.
[36] Birmingham,
Liverpool,
Manchester, and
London are cities with significant Irish elements present.
After French king
Louis XIV revoked the "irrevocable"
Edict of Nantes in 1685 and declared
Protestantism illegal with the
Edict of Fontainebleau, an estimated 50,000 Protestant
Huguenots fled to England.
[37]
In the 18th and 19th century, English people have settled in all parts of the
British Empire (in the case of
Australia, forcibly), and roughly half
the number of people with English ancestry resides outside of England, the largest group being the
British Americans.
Conversely, there had also been a very small black presence in England since at least the 16th century, due to the
slave trade and an Indian presence since the mid 19th century because of the
British Raj.
[38] Since 1945, the
Black and
Asian proportions have grown in the
United Kingdom in general, as immigration from the British Empire and subsequent
Commonwealth of Nations was encouraged due to labour shortages during post-war rebuilding.
[39]
Geographic distribution
Map showing the population density of
United States citizens who claim some English ancestry in the census. Dark red and brown colours indicate a higher density: highest in the northeast as well as Utah and surrounding areas. (see also
Maps of American ancestries).
English emigrant and descent communities are found across the world, and in some places, settled in significant numbers. Countries with significant numbers of people of English
ancestry or
ethnic origin include the
United States (particularly
Utah,
New England,
New York,
California,
Virginia and the
Southern States),
Australia,
Canada,
South Africa and
New Zealand.
In the last two decades there have been increasingly large numbers of English people permanently or semi-permanently living in
Spain and
France, drawn there by the climate and cheaper house prices.
[ British People in Spain: An X-ray This source does not differentiate between British and English residents so the exact number of English people is unknown. ]
[40]
[ 5.5m Britons 'opt to live abroad' Dominic Casciani Although this talks of numbers of British a rule of thumb would put English numbers at 75% of these figures or higher.]
[ France faces a 'rosbif' invasion ]
Culture
Contribution to humanity
In the opinion of English philologist
J. R. R. Tolkien, the early medieval
Anglo-Saxon mission to the Frankish Empire was "among our chief contributions to Europe, considering all our history".
The English have played a significant role in the development of the
arts and
sciences. Prominent individuals have included the scientists and inventors
Isaac Newton,
Francis Crick,
Abraham Darby,
Michael Faraday,
Charles Darwin,
Joseph Swan and
Frank Whittle; the poet and playwright
William Shakespeare, the novelists
Jane Austen,
Charles Dickens,
Virginia Woolf and
George Orwell , the composers
Edward Elgar and
Benjamin Britten, and the explorer
James Cook. English philosophers include
Francis Bacon,
John Locke,
Thomas Hobbes,
Thomas Paine,
Jeremy Bentham,
John Stuart Mill and
Bertrand Russell.
English law has also formed the basis for
common law legal systems throughout the world.
[41]
The rules for many modern sports including
football,
rugby (
union and
league),
cricket and
tennis were first formulated in England.
Language
Countries where
English has official or ''de facto'' official language status.
English people traditionally speak the
English language, a member of the
West Germanic language family. The modern English language evolved from
Old English, with lexical influence from Norman-French, Latin, and Old Norse. In addition,
Welsh is also used by a number of speakers across England, predominantly on the border with Wales although there are also some 50,000 Welsh speakers in the
Greater London Area.
[42] A third language traditionally spoken is
Cornish, a
Celtic language originating in
Cornwall, currently spoken by about 3,500 people. A fourth language also of the Brythonic Celtic group,
Cumbric, used to be spoken in
Cumbria in northwest England, but it died out in the 11th century although traces of it can still be found in the Cumbrian dialect. Because of the 19th century geopolitical dominance of the
British Empire and the post-World War II hegemony of the
United States, English has become the international language of business, science, communications, aviation, and diplomacy.
English is the native language of roughly 350 million people worldwide, with another 1.5 billion people who speak it as a second language.
Religion
Ever since the break with the Roman Catholic Church in the sixteenth century, the English have predominantly been members of the
Church of England, a branch of the
Anglican Communion, a form of Christianity with elements of Protestantism and Catholicism. The
Book of Common Prayer is the foundational prayer book of the Church of England and replaced the various Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church.
Perhaps the moment when the Protestant identity of England began to be questioned most radically was during the
ritualist controversies of the nineteenth century . Today, most English people practising organized religion are affiliated to the Church of England or other
Christian denominations such as
Roman Catholicism and
Methodism (itself originally a movement within the Anglican Church). In the 2001 Census, a little over 37 million people in England and Wales professed themselves to be Christian.
Jewish immigration since the seventeenth century means that there is an integrated
Jewish English population, mainly in urban areas. 252,000 Jews were recorded in England & Wales in the 2001 Census; however this represents a decline of about 50% over the previous 50 years, caused by emigration and intermarriage, and the long-term future of the community is a matter of some concern to community leaders. The gradual integration of migrants from
India and
Pakistan since the 1950s means that a large number of people living in England practise
Islam (818,000),
Hinduism (467,000), or
Sikhism (301,000). The 2001 census also revealed that about seven million people, or 15% of English people, claim no religion.
[43]
Sports
There are many sports codified by the English, which then spread worldwide due to trading and the British Empire, including
badminton,
cricket,
croquet,
football,
field hockey,
lawn tennis,
rugby league,
rugby union,
table tennis and
thoroughbred horse racing.
England, like the other nations of the United Kingdom, competes as a separate nation in some international sporting events. The English football, cricket and rugby union teams have contributed to an increasing sense of English identity. The England Cricket team actually represents England and Wales
[44].
Supporters are more likely to carry the
Cross of Saint George flag whereas twenty years ago the British
Union Flag would have been the more prominent. In an article in the ''
Daily Mirror'' on 17 September 2005,
Billy Bragg said "Watching the crowd in Trafalgar Square celebrating
The Ashes win, I couldn't help but be amazed at how quickly the flag of St George has replaced the Union Flag in the affections of England fans. A generation ago, England games looked a lot like Last Night of the Proms, with the red, white and blue firmly to the fore. Now, it seems, the English have begun to remember who they are."
[45].
Symbols
Saint George's Cross, the English flag.
The English flag is a red cross on a white background, commonly called the
Cross of Saint George. It was adopted after the
Crusades.
Saint George, later famed as a dragon-slayer, is also the patron saint of England. The three golden lions or leopards on a red background was the banner of the kings of England derived from their status as
Duke of Normandy and is now used to represent the
English national football team and the
English national cricket team, though in blue rather than gold. The English
oak and the
Tudor rose are also English symbols, the latter of which is (although more modernised) used by the
England national rugby union team.
England has no official
anthem; however, the United Kingdom's "
God Save the Queen" is widely regarded as England's unofficial national anthem. Other songs are sometimes used, including "
Land of Hope and Glory" (used as England's anthem in the
Commonwealth Games), "
Jerusalem", "
Rule Britannia", and "
I Vow to Thee, My Country". Of these, only ''Jerusalem'' specifically mentions England.
Identity
Wales was
annexed by England by the
Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, which incorporated Wales into the English state.
[46] A new British identity began and was subsequently developed when
James I expressed the desire to be known as the monarch of Britain (he was James I of England and James VI of Scotland).
[47] In 1707 England formed a union with
Scotland by the passage of the
Acts of Union 1707 in both the
Scottish and
English parliaments, creating the
Kingdom of Great Britain. After the act of union, the English, along with the other peoples of the Kingdom of Great Britain were encouraged to think of themselves as British rather than identifying thenselves by the smaller constituent nations.
[48] In 1801 another
Act of Union formed a union between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the
Kingdom of Ireland creating the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. About two thirds of Irish population, (those who lived in 26 of the 34 counties of Ireland) left the United Kingdom in 1922 to form the
Irish Free State, and the remainder became the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The late 1990s saw the beginning of a gradual renaissance of English national identity, spurred by
devolution in
Scotland,
Wales and
Northern Ireland. Some English people now question what it is to be English and its relationship with being British, and are calling for the creation of a
devolved English Parliament, claiming that there is now a discriminative democratic deficit, known as the
West Lothian question, against people living in England.
[49]
See also
References
1. 10 Downing Street official website. Retrieved 17 August 2007.
2. ''The Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd. edtn (1989).
3. Sarah Kane, ''Complete Plays'' (19
★
★ ), p. 41.
4. Scotland's Census 2001: Supporting Information (PDF; see p. 43); see also Philip Johnston, "Tory MP leads English protest over census", ''Daily Telegraph'' 15 June, 2006.
5. 'Developing the Questionnaires', ''National Statistics Office''.
6. In ''The Isles'', Norman Davies lists numerous examples in history books of 'British' being used to mean 'English' and vice versa.[page reference needed]
7. Pauline Greenhill, ''Ethnicity in the Mainstream: Three Studies of English Canadian Culture in Ontario'' (McGill-Queens, 1994) - page reference needed
8. Quoted by Kumar, ''Making'' [page reference needed]
9. Robert Winnett and Holly Watt, "Found: Migrants with the Mostest", ''The Sunday Times'', 10 June, 2006
10. "Nation", sense 1. ''The Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd edtn., 1989'.
11. Krishan Kumar, ''The Rise of English National Identity'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 262-290.
12. English Democrats FAQ
13. 'Introduction', ''The Campaign for an English Parliament''
14. Andrea Levy, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/politicsphilosophyandsociety/story/0,6000,138282,00.html "This is my England", ''The Guardian'', February 19, 2000.
15. 'Identity', ''National Statistics'', 21 Feb, 2006
16. 'English', ''The Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd edtn., 1989.
17. Britain and the Rhine provinces: epigraphic evidence for Roman trade by Mark Hassall. Retrieved 01 October 2006.
18. The Black Romans: 'BBC' culture website. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
19. The archaeology of black Britain: 'Channel 4' history website. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
20. ''Britain BC: Life in Britain and Ireland before the Romans'' by Francis Pryor, p. 122. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-00-712693-X.
21. ''Anglo-Saxon Origins: The Reality of the Myth'' by Malcolm Todd. Retrieved 01 October 2006.
22. "English and Welsh are Races Apart", ''BBC.co.uk'', 30 June, 2002
23. Mark G. Thomas, ''et al'', "Evidence for an Apartheid-like Social Structure in Anglo-Saxon England", ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B'', 2006.. For a summary, see [http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2006/07/19/anglo-saxons.html "'Apartheid' society gave edge to Anglo-Saxons, study suggests" , ''CBC'', July 19, 2006.
24. ''A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles''; Cristian Capelli, Nicola Redhead, Julia K. Abernethy, Fiona Gratrix, James F. Wilson, Torolf Moen, Tor Hervig, Martin Richards, Michael P. H. Stumpf, Peter A. Underhill, Paul Bradshaw, Alom Shaha, Mark G. Thomas, Neal Bradman, and David B. Goldstein ''Current Biology'', Volume 13, Issue 11, Pages 979-984 (2003). Retrieved 6 December 2005.
25. Myths of British Ancestry, , Stephen, Oppenheimer, Prospect Magazine, 2006
26. ''The Age of Athelstan'' by Paul Hill (2004), Tempus Publishing. ISBN 0-7524-2566-8
27. ''Athelstan (c.895 - 939)'': 'Historic Figures: BBC - History'. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
28. ''The Battle of Brunanburh, 937AD'' by h2g2, BBC website. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
29. A. L. Rowse, ''The Story of Britain'', Artus 1979 ISBN 0-297-83311-1
30. ''Online Etymology Dictionary'' by Douglas Harper (2001), List of sources used. Retrieved 10 July 2006.
31. ''The Adventure of English'', Melvyn Bragg, 2003. Pg 22
32. ''A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles''; Cristian Capelli, Nicola Redhead, Julia K. Abernethy, Fiona Gratrix, James F. Wilson, Torolf Moen, Tor Hervig, Martin Richards, Michael P. H. Stumpf, Peter A. Underhill, Paul Bradshaw, Alom Shaha, Mark G. Thomas, Neal Bradman, and David B. Goldstein ''Current Biology'', Volume 13, Issue 11, Pages 979-984 (2003). Retrieved 6 December 2005.
33. ''OED'', 2nd edition, s.v. 'English'.
34. OED, s.v. 'Englishry'.
35. EJP looks back on 350 years of history of Jews in the UK: 'European Jewish Press'. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
36. ''More Britons applying for Irish passports'' by Owen Bowcott 'The Guardian', 13 September 2006. Retrieved 9 January 2006.
37. Meredith on the Guillet-Thoreau Genealogy
38. ''Black Presence'', Asian and Black History in Britain, 1500-1850: 'UK government website'. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
39. Postwar immigration The National Archives "When the Second World War ended in 1945, it was quickly recognised that the reconstruction of the British economy required a large influx of immigrant labour." Accessed October 2006
40. Thousands more Britons join the exodus to live and work abroad Richard Ford Article talks about Britain rather than England so precise number of English involved is not clear.
41. Common Law by Daniel K. Benjamin, ''A World Connected' website. Retrieved 16 September 2006.
42. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/welsh.htm
43. 2001 National Census
44. England Cricket Team Profile
45. The Saturday Soap Box: We have to make Jerusalem England's national anthem
46. Liberation of Ireland: 'Ireland on the Net' Website. Retrieved 23 June 2006.
47. ''A History of Britain: The British Wars 1603-1776'' by Simon Schama, BBC Worldwide. ISBN 0-563-53747-7.
48. ''The English'', Jeremy Paxman 1998
49. An English Parliament...: 'Campaign for an English Parliament' Website. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
Bibliography
★
The Making of English National Identity, Krishan Kumar, , , Cambridge University Press, , ISBN 0521777364
External links
★
BBC Nations Articles on England and the English
★
The British Isles Information on England
★
Mercator's Atlas Map of England ("Anglia") circa 1564.
★
Viking blood still flowing; BBC;
3 December 2001.
★
UK 2001 Census showing 49,138,831 people from all ethnic groups living in England.
★
Tory MP leads English protest over census; The Telegraph;
23 April 2001.
★
On St. George's Day, What's Become Of England?; CNSNews.com;
23 April 2001.
★
Watching the English — an anthropologist's look at the hidden rules of English behaviour.
★
The True-Born Englishman, by
Daniel Defoe.
★
The Effect of 1066 on the English Language Geoff Boxell
★ BBC
"English and Welsh are races apart"
★
Y Chromosome Evidence for Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration
★
Origins of Britons - Brian Sykes
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