(Redirected from Eastern Orthodox)
The 'Eastern Orthodox Church' (i.e.
Greek Orthodox,
Russian Orthodox, etc.) is the modern name commonly applied to the ancient, theologically unified, multinational
Christian communion that views itself as:
★ The historical, unbroken continuation of the original
Christian community established by
Jesus Christ and the
Twelve Apostles, having preserved the apostolic traditions handed down to them, and having maintained unbroken the link between its clergy and the Apostles by means of
Apostolic Succession.
★ The ecclesial communion which has never fallen into error nor deviated from the beliefs and traditions of the original Christian body, but rather has gone to great lengths to preserve them for future generations. All theological concepts, all explanations and expansions are compared to and validated by the original core beliefs; no deviation is allowed.
★ The Christian body which most closely adheres to the
canons of the first seven
ecumenical councils held between the 4th and the 8th centuries.
'Note:' Within this article, the terms ''Greek'' Orthodox, ''Russian'' Orthodox, ''The Church'', ''The Orthodox Church'', and ''The Byzantine Church'', all refer to a single entity, what is today commonly called the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Organization and leadership
Main articles: Eastern Orthodox Church organization
The Orthodox Church considers
Jesus Christ to be the head of the Church, and the Church to be his body. It is believed that authority and the
Grace of God is directly passed down to Orthodox
bishops and
clergy through the laying on of hands—a practice started by the apostles, and that this unbroken historical and physical link is an essential element of the true church. Each bishop has a territory (
see) over which he governs. His main duty is to make sure the traditions and practices of the Church remain inviolate. Bishops are equal in authority and cannot interfere in each others' territory. Administratively, these bishops and their territories are organized into various
autocephalous groups or
synods of
bishops who gather together at least twice a year to discuss the state of affairs within their respective sees. While bishops and their autocephalous synods have the ability to administer guidance in individual cases, their actions do not usually set precedents that affect the entire church. There have been, however, a number of times when heretical ideas arose to challenge the Orthodox faith and it was necessary to convene a
general or "Great" council of all available bishops. The Church considers the first seven councils (held between the 4th and the 8th century) to be the most important, however, there have been more, specifically the Synods of
Constantinople, 879-880, 1341, 1347, & 1351, 1583, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of
Iaşi (Jassy), 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of
Jerusalem, 1672, all of which helped to define the Orthodox position. These councils did not create the doctrines of the church but rather compared the new ideas to the traditional beliefs of the Church. Ideas that were not supported by the traditions of the church were deemed heresy and expunged from the church. The ecumenical councils followed a democratic form with each bishop having one vote. Though present and allowed to speak before the council, members of the Imperial Roman/Byzantine court, abbots, priests, monks and laymen were not allowed to vote. The bishop of the old Roman capital, the Pope of Rome, though not present at all of the councils, was considered to be president of the council and thus called “First Among Equals” until the great schism of 1054. One of the decisions made by the second council and supported by later councils was that the bishop of Constantinople, since Constantinople was the New Rome, should be given the honor of second in rank. Later, because of the split with Rome, the honor of presiding over these general councils was transferred to the
Patriarch of
Constantinople who was also given the title, "First Among Equals", reflecting both his administrative leadership and his spiritual equality. He is not, however, considered to be the head or leader of the church.
(''See also
History of the Eastern Orthodox Church and
Eastern Orthodox Church organization''.)
Number of adherents
Based on the numbers of adherents, Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest Christian communion in the world after the
Roman Catholic Church.
[1] The most common estimates of the number of Eastern Orthodox Christians worldwide range between 150-350 million individuals.
[2] Eastern Orthodoxy is the largest single religious
faith in
Belarus (89%),
Bulgaria (86%), Republic of
Cyprus (88%),
Georgia (89%),
Greece (98%), the
Republic of Macedonia (70%),
Moldova (98%),
Montenegro (84%),
Romania (89%),
Russia (88%),
Serbia (88%), and
Ukraine (83%).
[3] It is also the dominant religion in
Republika Srpska (92%) entity in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the dominant religion in northern
Kazakhstan (48% of the
Kazakhstan population). In addition, there are also significant Orthodox communities in
Africa,
Asia,
Australia,
North America, and
South America.
Beliefs
Trinity
Orthodox Christians believe in a
God who is both three and one (triune). The Father is the cause or origin of the Godhead, from whom the Son is begotten eternally and also from whom the
Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. The
Holy Trinity is three, distinct, divine persons (''
hypostases''), without overlap or
modality among them, who share one divine
essence (''ousia'')—uncreated, immaterial and
eternal.
[4] Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the
Symbol of Faith.
[5]
In discussing God's relationship to his creation, Orthodoxy used the concept of a
distinction between God's eternal essence which is totally transcendent and his ''uncreated energies'' which is how he reaches us. It is also necessary to understand that this is an artificial distinction, not a real one. The God who is transcendent and the God who touches us are one and the same
[6]
Sin, salvation and the incarnation
Human nature, before the
fall of man, was pure and innocent. When
Adam and Eve disobeyed God in the
Garden of Eden, they introduced a new element into human nature (i.e. sin and corruption). This new state prevented man from participation in the
Kingdom of Heaven. When God became
incarnate on Earth, he changed human nature by uniting the human and the Divine; for this Christ is often called "The New Adam". By his participation in human life, death, and resurrection he sanctified the means whereby we could be restored to our original purity and regain heaven. This is what the Orthodox call salvation from the fate of hell. Christ’s salvific act worked retroactively back to the beginning of time thus saving all the righteous people who went to hell, including Adam and Eve.
Resurrection
The
Resurrection of Christ is the central event in the
liturgical year of the Orthodox Church and is understood in literal terms as a real historical event. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was crucified and died, descended into
Hell, rescued all the souls held there through sin; and then, because Hell could not restrain the infinite God, rose from the dead, thus saving all mankind. Through these events, he released mankind from the bonds of Hell and then came back to the living as man and God. That each individual human may partake of this immortality, which would have been impossible without the Resurrection, is the main promise held out by God in his
New Testament with mankind, according to Orthodox Christian tradition.
Every holy day of the Orthodox liturgical year relates to the Resurrection directly or indirectly. Every Sunday of the year is dedicated to celebrating the Resurrection. In the liturgical commemorations of the
Passion of Christ during
Holy Week there are frequent allusions to the ultimate victory at its completion.
Bible, holy tradition, and the patristic consensus
The Orthodox Church considers itself to be the historical and organic continuation of the original Church founded by Christ and His apostles.
[7] The faith taught by Jesus to the apostles, given life by the
Holy Spirit at
Pentecost, and passed down to future generations uncorrupted, is known as ''Holy Tradition''.
[8] The primary and authoritative witness to
Holy Tradition is the
Bible, texts written or approved by the apostles to record revealed truth and the early history of the Church. Because of the Bible's inspired origin, it is regarded as central to the life of the Church.
The Bible is always interpreted within the context of Holy Tradition, which gave birth to it and canonized it. Orthodox Christians maintain that belief in a doctrine of ''
sola scriptura'' would be to take the Bible out of the world in which it arose. Orthodox Christians therefore believe that the only way to understand the Bible correctly is within the Orthodox Church.
[9]
Other witnesses to Holy Tradition include the liturgy of the Church, its
iconography, the rulings of the
Ecumenical councils, and the writings of the
Church Fathers. From the consensus of the Fathers (''consensus patrum'') one may enter more deeply and understand more fully the Church's life. Individual Fathers are not looked upon as infallible, but rather the whole consensus of them together will give one a proper understanding of the Bible and Christian doctrine.
[10]
The Theotokos and the Saints
The Eastern Orthodox Church believes that death and the separation of body and soul to be unnatural; a result of man’s fall. They also feel that the congregation of the Church comprises both the living and the dead. All members of the Church who are in heaven are considered to be
Saints, whether their names are known or not. There are, however, those saints of distinction whom God has revealed to us as particularly good examples for us to learn from either their teachings or their lives. When a Saint is revealed and ultimately recognized by a large portion of the Church a service of official recognition (
glorification) is celebrated for the saint. This does not “make” the person a saint, it merely recognizes him and announces it to the rest of the Church. A day is prescribed for the saint’s celebration, hymns are composed, and icons are written (painted). Numerous saints are celebrated on each day of the year. They are venerated (shown great respect and love) but not worshiped, for worship is due to God alone. In showing the saints this love and requesting their prayers, it is believed by the Orthodox that they thus assist in the process of salvation for others.
[11]
Preeminent among the saints is the
Virgin Mary, the
Theotokos ("birthgiver of God"). The Theotokos was chosen by God and freely cooperated in that choice to be the mother of Jesus Christ, the God-man. The Orthodox believe that the Christ Child from the moment of conception was both 100% God and 100% Man. She is thus called Theotokos as an affirmation of the divinity of the one to whom she gave birth. It is also believed that her virginity was not compromised in giving birth to God incarnate, that she was not harmed, that she felt no pain, and that she remained forever a virgin. Because of her unique place in salvation history, she is honored above all other saints and especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through her.
[12]
Because of the holiness of the lives of the saints, their bodies and physical items connected with them are regarded by the Church as also holy. Many miracles have been reported throughout history connected with the saints'
relics, often including healing from disease and injury. The veneration and miraculous nature of relics continues from Biblical times.
[13]
Eschatology
''Last Judgment''. 12th-century Byzantine mosaic from
Torcello Cathedral.
Orthodox Christians believe that when a person dies his soul is “temporarily” separated from his body. Though it may linger for a short period on Earth, it is ultimately escorted either to heaven or hell, following the
Temporary Judgment (Orthodox do not believe in
Purgatory). The soul’s experience of either of these states is only a “foretaste,” being experienced only by the soul, until the
Final Judgment, when the soul and body will be reunited.
[14] The Orthodox believe that the state of the soul in hades can be changed by the love and prayers of the righteous up until the Last Judgment.
[15]. For this reason the church offers special
prayer for the dead on the third day, ninth day, fortieth day, and the one-year anniversary after the death of an Orthodox Christian. There are also several days throughout the year that are set aside for general commemoration of the departed. These days usually fall on a Saturday, since it was on a Saturday that Christ lay in the
Tomb.
The Orthodox are not
dispensationalists, and are
amillenniaist in their
eschatology, believing that the "thousand years" spoken of in biblical prophesy refers to the present time (from the
Crucifixion of Christ until the
Second Coming). The Church teaches that though one cannot know the hour or day of the Second Coming of Christ, the imminent expectation of Christ should influence one's current spiritual state. Although the
Apocalypse (Book of Revelation) is the only book of the New Testament never read in church (though it is mentioned in sermons), the teachings about the
End Times has greatly influenced Orthodox art and spirituality. Traditionally, a fresco of the Last Judgment is painted on the western wall of an Orthodox church, to remind the faithful as they leave the service that they will be judged for their actions in this temporal life. The Orthodox believe that after the Final Judgment:
★ all souls will be reunited with their resurrected bodies
★ that all souls will fully experience their spiritual state
★ that having been perfected, mankind will forever progress towards a deeper and fuller love of God, which equates with eternal happiness
★ that hell, though often described in metaphor as punishment, is not so much inflicted by God as the soul's inability to participate in God's infinite love which is given freely and abundantly to everyone.
Traditions
Art and architecture
Church buildings
Main articles: Orthodox church (building)
An illustration of the traditional interior of an Orthodox Church
The church building has many symbolic meanings; perhaps the oldest and most prominent is the concept that the Church is the Ark (as in
Noah's) in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations. Because of this, most Orthodox Churches are rectangular in design. Another popular shape, especially for churches with large choirs is
cruciform or cross-shaped. Architectural patterns may vary in shape and complexity, with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars (Liturgy may only be performed once a day on any particular altar), but in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same.
The origin of the layout of each Orthodox church is based on
Solomon's Temple with the
Holy of Holies being separated by the columnar or
templon.
The Church building is divided into three main parts: the
narthex (
vestibule), the
nave and the
sanctuary (also called the ''altar'' or ''holy place''). The narthex is where catechumens and non-Orthodox visitors were traditionally asked to stand during services. It is separated from the nave by “The Royal Gate”. On either side of this gate are candle stands (Menalia) representing the pillars of fire that went before the
Hebrew people escaping from Egypt. The nave is where most of the congregation stand during services. Traditionally, men stand on the right and women on the left. There may be a choir area on either side or in a loft in back. There is usually a dome in the ceiling with an icon of Christ depicted as
Ruler of the Universe (Pantocrator). At the eastern end of the church is a raised dais with an icon covered screen or wall (
iconostasis or
templon) separating the nave from the sanctuary. In the center of this wall is the “Beautiful Gate” through which only the clergy may pass. There are access doors on either side usually with icons of the Archangels on them. In the center of the sanctuary is the Altar. Orthodox priests, when standing at the altar face away from the congregation (They face East). The sanctuary contains all the necessary implements for conducting the various services.
Icons
The term Icon comes from the Greek word ''eikona'', which simply means image. The Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and
the Virgin Mary were painted by
Luke the Evangelist. Icons are filled with symbolism designed to convey information about the person or event depicted. For this reason, icons tend to be formulaic, following a prescribed methodology for how a particular person should be depicted, including hair style, body position, clothing worn, and background details. Icon painting, in general, is not an opportunity for artistic expression, though each iconographer brings his own vision to the piece. It is far more common for an icon to be copied from an older model, though with the recognition of a new saint in the church, a new icon must be created and approved. The personal, idiosyncratic and creative traditions of Western European
religious art are largely lacking in Orthodox iconography before the 17th century, when Russian iconography was strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe. Greek iconography also began to take on a strong romantic western influence for a period and the difference between some Orthodox icons and western religious art began to vanish. More recently there has been a strong trend of returning to the more traditional and symbolic representations.
A fairly elaborate Orthodox Christian prayer corner as would be found in a private home
Free-standing statues (three dimensional depictions) are almost non-existent within the Orthodox Church. This is partly due to the rejection of the previous pagan Greek age of
idol worship and partly because icons are meant to show the spiritual nature of man, not the sensual earthly body. Bas
reliefs, however, became common during the
Byzantine period and lead to a tradition of covering a painted icon in a silver or gold “Riza” in order to preserve the icon. Such bas relief coverings usually leave the faces and hands of the saints exposed for veneration.
Icons are not considered by the Orthodox to be idols or objects of worship. The parameters of their usage was clearly spelled out by the
7th ecumenical council. Justification for their usage utilizes the following logic: Before Christ God took human form no material depiction was possible and therefore blasphemous even to contemplate. Once Christ became human, he was able to be depicted. And because he is God, it is justified to hold in one's mind the image of God Incarnate. Likewise, when one venerates an icon, it is not the wood or paint that are venerated but rather the individual shown, just as it is not the paper one loves when one might kiss the photograph of a loved one. As
Saint Basil famously proclaimed, honor or veneration of the icon always passes to its archetype. Following this reasoning through, the veneration of the glorified human saint made in God's image, is always a veneration of the divine image, and hence God as foundational archetype.
Icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely.
[16] Most Orthodox homes have an area set aside for family prayer, usually an eastern facing wall, where are hung many icons.
Icons are often illuminated with a candle or oil lamp. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for lamps are preferred because they are natural and burn cleanly.) Besides the practical purpose of making icons visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps symbolize the Light of the World which is Christ.
Tales of miraculous icons that moved, spoke, cried, bled, or gushed fragrant myrrh are not uncommon, though it has always been considered that the message of such an event was for the immediate faithful involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds. Some miraculous icons whose reputations span long periods of time nevertheless become objects of pilgrimage along with the places where they are kept. As several Orthodox theologians and saints have explored in the past, the icons' miraculous nature is found not in the material, but in the glory of the saint who is depicted in the icon. The icon is a window, in the words of St Paul Florensky, that actually participates in the glory of what it represents. This is why several icons are believed to bleed myrrh, which is a physical manifestation of the uncreated holy spirit.
See also .
Iconostasis
Main articles: Iconostasis
An 'iconostasis', also called the 'templon', is a wall of
icons and religious paintings, separating the
nave from the
sanctuary in a
church. ''Iconostasis'' also refers to a portable icon stand that can be placed anywhere within a church. The modern iconostasis evolved from the
Byzantine templon in the eleventh century. The evolution of the iconostasis probably owes a great deal to
14th-century Hesychast mysticism and the wood-carving genius of the Russian Orthodox Church. The first ceiling-high, five-leveled Russian iconostasis was designed by
Andrey Rublyov in the
cathedral of the Dormition in
Vladimir in 1408.
The Tri-Bar Orthodox Cross.
The Cross
Depictions of the
Cross within the Orthodox Church are numerous and often highly ornamented. Some carry special significance. The Tri-Bar Cross, as seen to the right, has three bars instead of the single bar normally attached.
The small top crossbar represents the sign that
Pontius Pilate nailed above Christ's head. It often is inscribed with an acronym meaning “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews”; however, It is often replaced or amplified by the phrase "The King of Glory" in order to answer Pilate's mocking statement with Christ's affirmation, "My Kingdom is not of this world".
There is also a bottom slanting bar. This appears for a number of reasons. Evidence indicates that there was a small wooden platform for the crucified to stand on in order to support his weight; in Jesus' case his feet were nailed side by side to this platform with one nail each in order to prolong the torture of the cross.
Evidence for this comes mainly from two sources within Holy Tradition, the bible (in order to cause the victim to die faster their legs were broken so they could not support their weight and would strangle) and iconography (all early depictions of the crucifixion show this arrangement, not the later with feet on top with single nail). It has also been pointed out by some experts that the nailed hands of a body crucified in the manner often shown in modern secular art would not support the weight of the body and would tear through, a platform for the feet would relieve this problem.
The bottom bar is slanted for two reasons, to represent the very real agony which Christ experienced on the cross (a refutation of
Docetism) and to signify that the thief on Christ's right chose the right path while the thief on the left did not. Other crosses associated with the Orthodox church are the more traditional single-bar crosses, budded designs, the Jerusalem cross (cross pattée), Celtic crosses, and others.
In
Unicode, this cross is U+2626 (
). This is backward in most common
Unicode fonts.
Services
Main articles: Canonical Hours#Eastern Orthodox and Greek-Catholic usage,
Divine Services
The services of the church are properly conducted each day following a rigid, but constantly changing annual schedule (i.e. Parts of the service remain the same while others change depending on the day of the year). Services are conducted in the church and involve both the clergy and faithful. Services cannot properly be conducted by a single person, but must have at least one other person present (i.e. a Priest cannot celebrate alone, but must have at least a Chanter present and participating). Usually, all of the services are conducted on a daily basis only in monasteries and cathedrals, while parish churches might only do the services on the weekend and major feast days. On certain
Great Feasts (and, according to some traditions, every Sunday) a special
All-Night Vigil (''Agripnia'') will be celebrated from late at night on the eve of the feast until early the next morning. Because of its festal nature it is usually followed by a breakfast feast shared together by the congregation.
Services, especially the
Divine Liturgy can only be performed once a day on a single altar (some churches have multiple altars in order to accommodate multiple services). Each priest may only celebrate the Divine Liturgy once a day. From its Jewish roots, the liturgical day begins at sundown. The traditional daily cycle of services is as follows:
★
Vespers – (Greek ''Hesperinos'') Sundown, the beginning of the liturgical day.
★
Compline (Greek ''Apodipnon'', lit. "After-supper") – After the evening meal prior to bedtime.
★ (
Midnight Office - Usually served only in monasteries.)
★
Matins (Greek ''Orthros'') – First service of the morning. Usually starts before sunrise.
★
Hours – First, Third, Sixth, and Ninth – Sung either at their appropriate times, or in aggregate at other customary times of convenience. If the latter, The First Hour is sung immediately following Orthros, the Third and Sixth prior to the Divine Liturgy, and the Ninth prior to Vespers.
This daily cycle services are conceived of as both the sanctification of time (''
chronos'', the specific times during which they are celebrated), and entry into eternity (''
kairos''). They consist to a large degree of readings from the
Psalter with introductory prayers,
troparia, and other prayers and hymns surrounding them. The Psalms are so arranged that when all the services are celebrated the entire
Psalter is read through in their course once a week, and twice a week during
Great Lent when the services are celebrated in an extended form.
The
Divine Liturgy is the celebration of the
Eucharist. Although it is usually celebrated between the Sixth and Ninth Hours, it is not considered to be part of the daily cycle of services, as it occurs outside the normal time of the world. The Divine Liturgy may not be celebrated on Monday through Friday during the penitential season of
Great Lent due to the Liturgy's character of joy and thanksgiving. In some places the Liturgy is not celebrated on weekdays during the lesser fasting seasons either. Since intensified prayer and more frequent reception of
communion is nevertheless considered particularly beneficial at that time, the
Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts is often celebrated on Wednesdays and Fridays of that period. This is a solemn Vespers combined with the distribution of Eucharistic elements consecrated and reserved from the previous Sunday.
Chanting
Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety. Services consist in part of a dialog between the clergy and the people (often represented by the choir or the Psaltis (Cantor). In each case the text is sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing is read in a normal speaking voice, with the exception of the
homily if one is given. The church has developed eight Modes or Tones, (see
Octoechos) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast days, or other considerations of the
Typikon. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures.
[17] It is common, especially in the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian, etc.
Incense
As part of the legacy handed down from its Judaic roots,
incense is used during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church as an offering of worship to God as it was done in the Jewish First and Second Temples in Jerusalem (Exodus chapter 30). Traditionally, the base of the incense used is the resin of
Boswellia thurifera, also known as frankincense, but the resin of fir trees has been used as well. It is usually mixed with various floral essential oils giving it a sweet smell. Incense represents the sweetness of the prayers of the saints rising up to God (, , ). The incense is burned in an ornate golden censer that hangs at the end of Three chains representing the Trinity. In the Greek tradition there are 12 bells hung along these chains representing the 12 apostles (usually no bells in Slavic tradition). The censer is used (swung back and forth) by the priest/deacon to venerate all four sides of the altar, the holy gifts, the clergy, the icons, the congregation, and the church structure itself.
Mysteries
According to Orthodox theology, the purpose of the Christian life is to attain
theosis, the mystical union of man with God. This union is understood as both collective and individual. St.
Athanasius of Alexandria, wrote concerning the
Incarnation that, "He (Jesus) was made man that we might be made god (θεοποιηθῶμεν)".
[18] See , , . The entire life of the church is oriented towards making this possible and facilitating it.
In the Orthodox Church the terms “Mystery” or “The Mysteries” refer to the process of theosis. While it is understood that God theoretically can do anything instantly and invisibly, it is also understood that he generally chooses to use material substance as a medium in order to reach people. The limitations are those of mankind, not God. Matter is not considered to be evil by the Orthodox. Water, oil, bread, wine, etc., all are means by which God reaches out to allow people to draw closer to him. How this process works is a “Mystery”, and cannot be defined in human terms. These Mysteries are surrounded by prayer and symbolism so that their true meaning will not be forgotten.
Those things which in the West are often termed
Sacraments or
sacramentals are known among the Orthodox as the Sacred Mysteries. While the Roman Catholic Church numbers seven Sacraments, and many Protestant groups list fewer (or none at all), the Orthodox do not limit the number. However, for the sake of convenience,
catechisms will often speak of the seven Great Mysteries. Among these are
Holy Communion (the most direct connection),
Baptism,
Chrismation,
Confession,
Unction,
Matrimony, and
Ordination. But the term also properly applies to other sacred actions, such as monastic
Tonsure or the blessing of
holy water, and involves fasting, almsgiving, or an act as simple as lighting a candle, burning incense, praying or asking God's blessing on food.
[19]
Baptism
Baptism is the mystery which transforms the old sinful man into the new, pure man; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given. Through baptism one is united to the
Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Orthodox Church. During the service
water is blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times in the name of the Holy Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.
[20] Properly a new name is given, which becomes the person's name.
Children of Orthodox families are normally baptized shortly after birth. Converts to Orthodoxy (even converts from other
Christian denominations) are properly baptized into the Orthodox Church. Those who have left Orthodoxy and adopted a new religion, if they return to their Orthodox roots are usually received back into the church through the mystery of Chrismation. The modern practice of receiving converts who were baptized in other
Christian churches by Chrismation is not generally accepted by the majority of the Church.
Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, in emergencies any Orthodox Christian can baptize.
[21] In such cases, should the person survive the emergency, it is likely that the person will be properly baptized by a priest at some later date. This is not considered to be a second baptism, nor is it imagined that the person is not already Orthodox, but rather it is a fulfilment of the proper form.
The service of baptism used in Orthodox churches has remained largely unchanged for over 1500 years. This fact is witnessed to by St.
Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), who, in his Discourse on the Sacrament of Baptism, describes the service in much the same way as is currently in use.
Chrismation
Chrismation (sometimes called
confirmation) is the mystery by which a baptized person is granted the gift of the
Holy Spirit through anointing with Holy
Chrism.
[22] It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Orthodox Church.
[23] As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at
Pentecost.
[24]
A baptized and chrismated Orthodox Christian is a full member of the Church, and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.
[24]
The creation of Chrism may be accomplished by any bishop at any time, but usually is done only once a year, often when a synod of bishops convenes for its annual meeting. (Some autocephalous churches get their chrism from others.) Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament.
[26]
Fasting
The number of fast days varies from year to year, but in general the Orthodox Christian can expect to spend a little over half the year
fasting at some level of strictness. There are spiritual, symbolic, and even practical reasons for fasting. In the
Fall from Paradise mankind became possessed by a carnal nature; that is to say, he became inclined towards the
passions. Through fasting, Orthodox Christians attempt to return to the relationship of love and obedience to God enjoyed by Adam and Eve in
Paradise in their own lives, by refraining from carnal practices, by bridling the tongue (), confession of sins, prayer and almsgiving.
Fasting is seen as an exercise in self-denial and Christian obedience that serves to rid the believer of his or her ''passions'' (what most modern people would call "addictions"). These are often low-intensity and hard-to-detect addictions to food, television or other distracting entertainments, sex, or any kind of self-absorbed pleasure-seeking are seen as some of the most significant obstacles for man seeking union with God (
Theosis). Through spiritual struggle (
ascesis) the believer comes face to face with the reality of his weak and sinful condition — the starting point for genuine repentance.
All Orthodox Christians are expected to fast following a prescribed set of guidelines. They do not view fasting as a hardship, but rather as a privilege and joy. The teaching of the Church fixes both the times and the amount of fasting that is expected as a minimum for every member. For greater ascesis, some may choose to go without food entirely for a short period of time. A complete three-day fast at the beginning and end of a fasting period is not unusual, and some fast for even longer periods, though this is usually practiced only in monasteries. However, there are circumstances where a
dispensation is allowed out of physical necessity: those who are pregnant or infirm, the very young and the elderly, or those who have no control over their diet, such as prisoners or soldiers. Fasting does not involve hatred of the body, but rather a desire to discipline and sanctify the body (, , , , etc.) and tame the flesh (i.e., that part of the personality which is addicted to the passions).
In general, fasting means abstaining from meat and meat products, dairy (eggs and cheese) and dairy products, fish, olive oil, and wine. Wine and oil—and, less frequently, fish—are allowed on certain feast days when they happen to fall on a day of fasting, but animal products and dairy are always forbidden on fast days. Married couples also abstain from sexual relations on fast days, that they may devote themselves to prayer ().
The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox Christians; the times of fasting are part of the
ecclesiastical calendar, and the method of fasting is set by the
Holy Canons and
Sacred Tradition. There are four major fasting periods during the year. They are:
★ The '
Nativity Fast' (Advent or "Winter Lent") which is the 40 days preceding the
Nativity of Christ (Christmas), beginning on
November 15 and running through
December 24. This fast becomes more severe after
December 20, and
Christmas Eve is observed a strict fast day.
★ '
Great Lent' which consists of the 6 weeks (40 Days) preceding
Palm Sunday, and
Great Week (Holy Week) which preceding
Pascha (Easter).
★ The '
Apostles' Fast' which varies in length from 8 days to 6 weeks. It begins on the Monday following
All Saints Sunday (the first Sunday after
Pentecost) and extends to the
Feast of Saints Peter and Paul on
June 29. Since the date of Pentecost depends on that of Pascha, and Pascha is determined on the
Julian Calendar, this fast can disappear completely under
New Calendar observance (This is one of the objections raised by opponents to the New Calendar).
★ The '
Dormition Fast', a two-week long Fast preceding the ''
Dormition of the Theotokos'' (repose of The Virgin Mary), lasting from
August 1 through
August 14.
In addition to these fasting seasons, Orthodox Christians fast on every 'Wednesday' (in commemoration of Christ's betrayal by
Judas Iscariot) and 'Friday' (in commemoration of his
Crucifixion) throughout the year. Monastics often fast on 'Mondays' (in imitation of the
Angels, who are commemorated on that day in the weekly cycle, since monastics are striving to lead an angelic life on earth, and angels neither eat nor drink).
Orthodox Christians who are preparing to receive the
Eucharist do not eat or drink at all from midnight until after taking
Holy Communion. A similar total fast is expected to be kept on the
Eve of Nativity, the Eve of
Theophany (Epiphany),
Great Friday and
Holy Saturday for those who can do so. There are other individual days observed as fasts (though not as days of total fasting) no matter what day of the week they fall on, such as the
Beheading of St. John the Baptist on
August 29 and the
Exaltation of the Holy Cross on
September 14.
Strict fasting is canonically forbidden on Saturdays and Sundays due to the festal character of the
Sabbath and the
Resurrection, respectively. On those days wine and oil are permitted even if abstention from them would be otherwise called for.
Holy Saturday is the only Saturday of the year where a strict fast is kept.
There are also four periods in the liturgical year during which no fasting is permitted, even on Wednesday and Friday. These fast-free periods are:
★ The week following
Pascha (Easter)
★ The week following
Pentecost
★ The period from the
Nativity of Christ up to (but not including) the Eve of
Theophany (Epiphany). The day of Theophany itself is always fast-free, even if it falls on a Wednesday or Friday.
★ The week following the Sunday of the
Publican and the Pharisee (one of the preparatory Sundays before Great Lent). This is fast-free to remind the faithful not to boast like the Pharisee that he fasts for two days out of the week ).
When certain feast days fall on fast days, the fasting laws are lessened to a certain extent, to allow some consolation in the ''
trapeza'' (refectory) for the longer services, and to provide an element of sober celebration to accompany the spiritual joy of the feast.
It is considered a greater sin to advertise one's fasting than to not participate in the fast. Fasting is a purely personal communication between the Orthodox Christian and God. If one has health concerns, or responsibilities that cannot be fulfilled because of fasting, then it is perfectly permissible not to fast. An individual's observance of the fasting laws is not to be judged by the community (, but is a private matter between him and his
Spiritual Father or
Confessor.
Almsgiving
"
Almsgiving" refers to any charitable giving of material resources to those in need. Along with ''prayer'' and ''fasting'', it is considered a pillar of the personal spiritual practices of the Orthodox Christian tradition. Almsgiving is particularly important during periods of fasting, when the Orthodox believer is expected to share the monetary savings from his or her decreased consumption with those in need. As with fasting, bragging about the amounts given for charity is considered anywhere from extremely rude to sinful.
Holy Communion
The
Eucharist is at the center of Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is the partaking of the
Body and
Blood of Jesus Christ in the midst of the
Divine Liturgy with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to become the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ
Jesus through the operation of the Holy Spirit. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches have in the West. The doctrine of
transubstantiation was formulated after the
Great Schism took place, and the Orthodox churches have never formally affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is a "Mystery".
[27]
Communion is given only to baptized, chrismated Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer, and confession. The priest will administer the Gifts with a spoon directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice.
[28] From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy Communion.
[24]
It is the opinion of some traditionalists that frequent communion is dangerous spiritually if it reflects a lack of piety in approaching the most significant of the Mysteries, which would be damaging to the soul. However, many spiritual advisors advocate frequent reception as long as it is done in the proper spirit and not casually, with full preparation and discernment. Frequent reception is more common now than in recent centuries.
[28]
Repentance
Orthodox Christians who have committed sins but repent of them, and who wish to reconcile themselves to God and renew the purity of their original
baptisms, confess their sins to God before a spiritual guide who offers advice and direction to assist the individual in overcoming their sin. Parish priests commonly function as spiritual guides, but such guides can be anyone, male or female, who have been given a blessing to hear confessions. Spiritual guides are chosen very carefully as it is a mandate that once chosen, they must be obeyed. Having confessed, the penitent then has his or her parish priest read the prayer of repentance over them.
Sin is not viewed by the Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, or a legal transgression that must be set right by a punitive sentence, but rather as a mistake made by the individual with the opportunity for spiritual growth and development. An act of
Penance, if the spiritual guide requires it, is never formulaic, but rather is directed toward the individual and their particular problem, as a means of establishing a deeper understanding of the mistake made, and how to affect its cure. Though it sounds harsh, temporary excommunication is fairly common (The Orthodox require a fairly high level of purity in order to commune, therefore certain sins make it necessary for the individual to refrain from communing for a period). Because confession and repentance are required in order to raise the individual to a level capable of communing (though no one is truly worthy). Because full participatory membership is granted to infants, it is not unusual for even small children to confess; though the scope of their culpability is far less than an older child, still their opportunity for spiritual growth remains the same.
Marriage
Marriage, within the Orthodox Church is seen as an act of God in which he sanctifies the joining of two people into one. First and foremost this joining is seen as a dispensation allowed by God for the mutual comfort and support of the individuals involved. While procreation and the perpetuation of the species is seen as important, what is more important is the bond of love between the two individuals as this is a reflection of our ultimate
union with God. Divorce is rare in the Orthodox Church. The Church does recognize that there are occasions when it is better that couples do separate. It remains the decision of one's Bishop if they should desire to marry again if they will be permitted to do so. Generally widows may remarry as well as some divorced. A man is not permitted to be a priest if he or his wife have ever been divorced. If a person is undergoing a second marriage because of a divorce the sacrament is different and contains prayers or repentance for the first failed marriage.
The Mystery of Marriage in the Orthodox Church has two distinct parts: The Betrothal and The Crowning.
The Betrothal includes: The exchange of the rings, the procession, the declaration of intent, and the lighting of candles.
The Crowning includes: The readings from the epistle and gospel, the Blessing of the Common Cup, and the Dance of Isaiah (the bride and groom are led around the table 3 times), and then the Removal of the Crowns. There is no exchange of vows. There is a set expectation of the obligations incumbent on a married couple, and whatever promises they may have privately to each other are their responsibility to keep. Finally there is the Greeting of the Couple.
Monasticism
Main articles: Degrees of Orthodox monasticism
All Orthodox Christians are expected to participate in at least some ascetic works, in response to the commandment of Christ to "come, take up the cross, and follow me." (
Mark 10:21 and elsewhere) They are therefore all called to imitate, in one way or another, Christ himself who denied himself to the extent of literally taking up the cross on the way to his voluntary self-sacrifice. However, laypeople are not expected to live in extreme
asceticism since this is close to impossible while undertaking the normal responsibilities of worldly life. Those who wish to do this therefore separate themselves from the world and live as monastics: monks and nuns. As ascetics ''par excellence'', using the allegorical weapons of prayer and fasting in spiritual warfare against their passions, monastics hold a very special and important place in the Church. This kind of life is often seen as incompatible with any kind of worldly activity including that which is normally regarded as virtuous. Social work, school teaching, and other such work is therefore usually left to laypeople.
The Schema worn by Orthodox Monks.
There are three main types of monastics. Those who live in monasteries under a common rule are ''coenobitic''. Each monastery may formulate its own rule, and although there are no
religious orders in Orthodoxy some respected monastic centers such as
Mount Athos are highly influential. ''Eremitic'' monks, or hermits, are those who live solitary lives. Hermits might be associated with a larger monastery but living in seclusion some distance from the main compound, and in such cases the monastery will see to their physical needs while disturbing them as little as possible. They often live in the most extreme conditions and practice the strictest asceticism. In order to become a hermit, it is necessary for the monk or nun to prove them to be worthy enough to their superior clergy. In between are those in ''semi-eremitic'' communities, or ''sketes'', where one or two monks share each of a group of nearby dwellings under their own rules and only gather together in the central chapel, or ''kyriakon'', for liturgical observances.
The spiritual insight gained from their ascetic struggles make monastics preferred for missionary activity. Bishops are often chosen from among monks, and those who are not generally receive the monastic tonsure before their consecrations.
Many (but not all) Orthodox
seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for
ordination with participation in the community's life of prayer. Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called ''hieromonk'' (priest-monk); monks who have been ordained to the diaconate are called ''hierodeacon'' (deacon-monk). Not all monks live in monasteries, some hieromonks serve as priests in parish churches thus practicing "monasticism in the world".
Cultural practices differ slightly but in general, ''Father'' is the correct form of address for monks who have been tonsured, while Novices are addressed as ''Brother''. Similarly, ''Mother'' is the correct form of address for nuns who have been tonsured, while Novices are addressed as ''Sister''. Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called ''monachoi'' (monastics) or the feminine plural form in Greek, ''monachai'', and their common living space is called a monastery.
Holy Orders
Orthodox clergy at All Saints Antiochian Orthodox Church, Raleigh, NC (L to R): priest, two deacons, bishop
Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the leaders of the Church in each place came to be known as ''episkopoi'' (overseers, plural of ''episkopos'', overseer — Gr. ), which became "
bishop" in English. The other
ordained roles are ''presbyter'' (Gr. , elder), which became "prester" and then "
priest" in English, and ''diakonos'' (Gr. , servant), which became "
deacon" in English (see also
subdeacon). There are numerous administrative positions in the clergy that carry additional titles. In the Greek tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient See are called Metropolitan, while the lead bishop in Greece is the Archbishop. (In the Russian tradition, however, the usage of the terms "Metropolitan" and "Archbishop" is reversed.) Priests can be archpriests, archimandrites, or protopresbyters. Deacons can be archdeacons or protodeacons, as well. The position of deacon is often occupied for life. The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop.
The Orthodox Church has always allowed married priests and deacons, provided the marriage takes place before
ordination. In general, parish priests are to be married as they live in normal society (that is, "in the world" and not a monastery) where Orthodoxy sees marriage as the normative state. Unmarried priests usually live in monasteries since it is there that the unmarried state is the norm, although it sometimes happens that an unmarried priest is assigned to a parish. Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry, and it is common for such a member of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see
clerical celibacy). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who often do not remarry and may become nuns if their children are grown. Bishops are always
celibate. Although Orthodox consider men and women equal before God (
Gal. 3:28), only men who are qualified and have no canonical impediments may be ordained bishops, priests, or deacons.
Unction
Anointing with oil, or Holy Unction, is one of the many mysteries administered by the Orthodox Church. The Mystery is far more common in the Orthodox Church than it had traditionally been in the Roman Catholic Church (until recent years). In both Churches today it is not reserved for the dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily healing. In Orthodoxy, however, it is also offered annually on
Great Wednesday to all believers. It is often distributed on major feast days, or any time the clergy feel it necessary for the spiritual welfare of its congregation.
According to Orthodox teaching Holy Unction is based on the
Epistle of James:
''Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.'' —
History
Main articles: History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Early Church
Christianity first spread in the predominantly
Greek-speaking eastern half of the
Roman Empire.
Paul and the
Apostles traveled extensively throughout the Empire, establishing Churches in major communities, with the first Churches appearing in
Antioch,
Alexandria, and
Jerusalem, and then the two political centres of
Rome and
Constantinople. Orthodox believe an
Apostolic Succession was established; this played a key role in the Church's view of itself as the preserver of the Christian community. Systematic
persecution of Christians stopped in
313 when
Emperor Constantine the Great proclaimed the
Edict of Milan. From that time forward, the
Byzantine Emperor exerted various degrees of influence over the church (see
Caesaropapism). This included the calling of the
Ecumenical Councils to resolve disputes and establish church
dogma on which the entire church would agree. Sometimes
Patriarchs (often of
Constantinople) were deposed by the emperor; at one point emperors sided with the
iconoclasts in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Ecumenical councils
Several doctrinal disputes from the
4th century onwards led to the calling of
Ecumenical councils.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity recognizes the following seven
ecumenical councils as most significant.
#The
First Ecumenical Council was convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicea in 325, condemning the view of Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.
#The
Second Ecumenical Council was held at Constantinople in 381, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.
#The
Third Ecumenical Council is that of Ephesus in 431, which affirmed that Mary is truly "Birthgiver" or "Mother" of God (''
Theotokos''), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius.
#The
Fourth Ecumenical Council is that of Chalcedon in 451, which affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching.
#The
Fifth Ecumenical Council is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship of the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.
#The
Sixth Ecumenical Council is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites.
#The
Seventh Ecumenical Council was called under the Empress Regent Irene in 787, known as the second of Nicea. It supports the 'veneration' of
icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy"
In addition to these councils there have been a number of significant counils meant to further define the Orthodox position. They are the Synods of
Constantinople, 879-880, 1341, 1347, & 1351, 1583, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of
Iaşi (Jassy), 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of
Jerusalem, 1672.
The Church in Egypt (
Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the
Council of Chalcedon (
451), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of
Jesus. Eventually this led to each group having its own Patriarch (Pope). Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs (those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon) were called "Melkites" (the king's men, because Constantinople was the city of the emperors) [not to be confused with the
Melkite Catholics of Antioch], and are today known as the
Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, currently led by
Patriarch Theodore II. Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon are today known as the
Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, currently led by
Pope Shenouda III. There was a similar split in
Syria (
Patriarchate of Antioch) into the
Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch and the
Syriac Orthodox Church.
Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called "
Oriental Orthodox" to distinguish them from the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as "
monophysites", "non-Chalcedonians", or "anti-Chalcedonians", although today the Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term "
miaphysite", to denote the "joined" nature of Jesus. Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church and the other fallen into heresy, although over the last several decades there has been some reconciliation.
Several
Ecumenical Councils were held between 325 (the
First Council of Nicaea) and 787 (the
Second Council of Nicaea), which to Orthodox constitute the definitive interpretation of Christian dogma. Orthodox thinking differs on whether the
Fourth and
Fifth Councils of Constantinople were properly Ecumenical Councils, but the majority view is that they were merely influential, and not bindingly dogmatic.
Roman/Byzantine Empire
Orthodox Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of
Byzantine Empire and continued to flourish in
Russia, after the
fall of Constantinople. Numerous
autocephalous churches were established in
Eastern Europe and
Slavic areas.
In the 530s the
Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) was built in
Constantinople under emperor
Justinian I.
Oriental Orthodoxy
As noted above, Eastern Orthodoxy strives to keep the faith of the aforementioned seven
Ecumenical Councils. In contrast, the term "
Oriental Orthodoxy" refers to the churches of
Eastern Christian traditions that keep the faith of only the first three ecumenical councils — the
First Council of Nicaea, the
First Council of Constantinople and the
Council of Ephesus — and rejected the
dogmatic definitions of the
Council of Chalcedon. Thus, "Oriental Orthodox" churches are distinct from the churches that collectively refer to themselves as "Eastern Orthodox". "Oriental Orthodox" groups are sometimes referred to as
Monophysites, though they generally disagree with this title and prefer to be called
Miaphysites.
As well, there are the "
Nestorian" churches, which are Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople. "Nestorian" is an outsider's term for a tradition that predated the influence of Nestorius. Thus, "Persian Church" is a more neutral term.
Great Schism
Main articles: East-West Schism
In the 11th century the
Great Schism took place between
Rome and
Constantinople, which led to separation of the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. There were doctrinal issues like the
filioque clause and the authority of the
Pope involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks. Prior to that, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church had frequently been in conflict, particularly during periods of
iconoclasm and the
Photian schism.
The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the
Fourth Crusade in 1204 . The sacking of the
Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the
Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox
Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. In
2004,
Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by
Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time:
holy relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly
Venice.
In
1453, the Byzantine Empire fell to the
Ottoman Empire. By this time
Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an
autocephalous status; and thus
Moscow called itself the
Third Rome, as the cultural heir of Constantinople. Under Ottoman rule, the
Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous ''
millet''. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek Orthodox nation" (Ottoman administrative unit), which encompassed all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire.
Conversion of East and South Slavs
Orthodox churches in
Vologda, Russia
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Orthodoxy made great inroads into
Eastern Europe, including
Kievan Rus'. This work was made possible by the work of the Byzantine
saints
Cyril and
Methodius. When Rastislav, the king of Moravia, asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language,
Byzantine emperor Michael III chose these two brothers. As their mother was a Slav from the hinterlands of Thessaloniki,
Cyril and Methodius spoke the local
Slavonic vernacular and translated the
Bible and many of the prayer books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language
Old Church Slavonic was created. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of
Great Moravia, Cyril and Methodius were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese. Their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD
886.
Methodius later went on to convert the
Serbs. Some of the disciples, namely
Saint Clement of Ohrid,
Saint Naum who were of noble
Bulgarian descent and St. Angelaruis, returned to
Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian
Tsar Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the
Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts and in AD
893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the
Slavonic language as the official language of the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East
Slavic peoples, most notably the
Rus', predecessors of
Belarusians,
Russians, and
Ukrainians.
The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than
Latin as the Roman priests did, or
Greek. Today the
Russian Orthodox Church is the largest of the Orthodox Churches.
Age of captivity
In
1453, the Byzantine Empire fell to the
Ottoman Empire. By this time
Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an
autocephalous status; and thus
Moscow called itself the
Third Rome, as the cultural heir of Constantinople.
Under Ottoman rule, the
Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous ''
millet''. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek Orthodox nation" (Ottoman administrative unit), which encompassed all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire.
Stavronikita monastery, South-East view
As a result of the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and the
Fall of Constantinople, the entire Orthodox communion of the Balkans and the Near East became suddenly isolated from the West. For the next four hundred years, it would be confined within a hostile
Islamic world, with which it had little in common religiously or culturally. The Russian Orthodox Church and the Orthodox Churches from
Valachia and
Moldova were the only part of the Orthodox communion which remained outside the control of the Ottoman empire. It is, in part, due to this geographical and intellectual confinement that the voice of Eastern Orthodoxy was not heard during the Reformation in sixteenth century Europe. It should not be surprising that this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox; after all, they never took part in it and thus neither
Reformation nor
Counter-Reformation is part of their theological framework.
Eastern Orthodox Church under the Republic of Turkey
Since the establishment of the secular nationalist
Republic of Turkey, the number of Orthodox in the
Anatolian peninsula has sharply declined amidst complaints of governmental relations; especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1924 (also see
Greco-Turkish relations).
Russian Orthodox Church under Tsarist rule
The Moscow Kremlin, as seen from the Balchug.
Prior to the
October Revolution, the Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the
Russian Empire. It was a department of the government called the
Holy Synod, which was run by an official appointed by the
Tsar himself. The church has a history of being involved to some degree with the Czarists campaigns of
russification though not on the same level as compatible with the Soviet regime (see the
holodomor).
[4][5] There are some allegations that the church was heavily involved in the various campaigns of
anti-Jewish pogroms.
[6] It was allowed to impose
taxes on the
peasants. The Church, like the Tsarist state was seen as an enemy of the people by the
Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries.
Eastern Orthodox Church under Communist rule
The Russian Orthodox Church
collaborated with the
White Army in the
Russian Civil War (see
White movement) after the October Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church.
Before and after the October Revolution of November 7, 1917 (October 25 Old Calendar) there was a movement within the
Soviet Union to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule (see
Communist International). This included the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States. Since some of these Slavic states tied their ethnic heritage to their ethnic churches, both the peoples and their church where targeted by the Soviet.
[31] [32]
The Soviets' official religious stance was one of "religious freedom or tolerance", though the state established
atheism as the only scientific truth.
Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes lead to imprisonment.
[33]
The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organized religions were never outlawed.
Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with
execution included
torture being sent to
prison camps,
labour camps or
mental hospitals.
[34][35] Many Orthodox (along with peoples of other faiths) were also subjected to
psychological punishment or torture and
mind control experimentation in order to force them give up their religious convictions (see
Piteşti prison).
[36][37]
The result of this militant atheism was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.
[38]
The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful. Nearly all of its clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to
labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the
Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1935, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. Of these, 95,000 were put to death, executed by firing squad.
After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941,
Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959
Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. It is estimated that 50,000 clergy were executed by the end of the Khrushchev era.
[39] Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB.
In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closing and destruction of churches, the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property, Church owned property was confiscated into public use. The few places of worship left to the Church were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church was not permitted to carry on educational, instructional activity of any kind. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it could not instruct or evangelise to the faithful or its youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications were all illegal and or banned. This persecution continued, even after the death of Stalin until the Fall of
Communism in 1991. This caused many religious tracts to be circulated as illegal literature or
samizdat.
[34]
Diaspora emigration to the West
One of the most striking developments in modern historical Orthodoxy is the dispersion of Orthodox Christians to the West. Emigration from Greece and the Near East in the last hundred years has created a sizable Orthodox diaspora in Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia. In addition, the Bolshevik Revolution forced thousands of Russian exiles westward. As a result, Orthodoxy's traditional frontiers have been profoundly modified. Millions of Orthodox are no longer geographically "eastern" since they live permanently in their newly adopted countries in the West. Nonetheless, they remain Eastern Orthodox in their faith and practice. Virtually all the Orthodox nationalities - Greek, Arab, Russian, Serbian, Macedonian, Albanian, Ukrainian, Romanian, Bulgarian - are represented in the United States.
Church today
Distribution of Eastern Orthodoxy in the world by country
The various autocephalous and autonomous synods of the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in
full communion with one another. Relations have recently been restored between the
Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) and the
Moscow Patriarchate (MP), two branches of the
Russian Orthodox Church which separated from each other in the 1920s, due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile
Soviet regime (see
Act of Canonical Communion).
Tensions exist in the philosophical differences between those who use the
Revised Julian Calendar ("New Calendarists") for calculating the feasts of the
ecclesiastical year and those who continue to use the traditional
Julian Calendar ("
Old calendarists"). The calendar question reflects the dispute between those who wish to synchronize with the modern Roman Catholic (Gregorian) calendar, and those who wish to maintain the continuity of the traditional Orthodox (Julian) calendar. The dispute has led to much acrimony, and sometimes even to violence. Following canonical precepts, some adherents to the Old Calendar have chosen to abstain from clerical intercommunion with those synods which have embraced the New Calendar until such a time that the conflict is resolved. The monastic communities on
Mount Athos have provided the strongest opposition to the New Calendar, and to
modernism in general, while still maintaining communion with their mother church.
Some latent discontent between different
national churches exists also in part due to different approach towards
ecumenism. While the
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, the Orthodox bishops in North America gathered into the
Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas (SCOBA), Romanian bishops, and others are fairly open to dialog with the
Roman Catholic Church, and some currently engaged in discussing key theological differences such as the
Filioque,
Papal primacy, and a possible agreement on rapprochement and eventually
full communion with the Catholic and Anglican Churches. However, both consevative and moderate Old Calendarists, many of the monks of Mount Athos, several bishops of Russian, Serbian, and some of Greek and Bulgarian churches regard ecumenism as compromising essential doctrinal stands in order to accommodate
other Christians, and object to the emphasis on dialogue leading to inter-communion; believing instead that Orthodox must speak the truth with love, in the hope of leading to the eventual conversion to Orthodoxy of
heterodox Christians.
Orthodox churches in communion
Nowadays, there are 14 (15 by some)
autocephalous Orthodox churches, in
communion with each other, with the precise order of seniority of their heads as listed below. Some of them contain autonomous (marked below) and/or semi-autonomous dioceses (listed within the mother churches). The first 9 of the autocephalous churches are led by
patriarchs.
★
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
★
★
Finnish Orthodox Church (autonomous)
★
★
Estonian Orthodox Church (autonomous)
★
★ Albanian Orthodox Diocese of America
★
★
Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese in the USA
★
★
Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada
★
★
Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA
★
★
Patriarchal Exarchate for Orthodox Parishes of Russian Tradition in Western Europe
★
★
★
Episcopal Vicariate of Great Britain and Ireland
★
★
Mount Athos
★
★ Belorussian Council of Orthodox Churches in North America
★
★
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
★
★ Archdiocese of Thyateira and
Great Britain (includes Ireland)
★
★ Archdiocese in Italy and Malta
★
★ Archdiocese in Australia
★
★ 13 other small metropolises outside its canonical territory: Austria, Belgium, Argentina, Canada, France, Germany,
Hong Kong, the
Korean Orthodox Church, Mexico and
Central America,
New Zealand, Scandinavia, Spain and Portugal, and Switzerland
★
Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria
★
★ African Orthodox groups in Kenya and Uganda
★
Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch
★
★
Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America (autonomous)
★
★
Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand, and All Oceania
★
Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem
★
★
Church of Mount Sinai (autonomous)
★
★
Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem in North and South America
★
Russian Orthodox Church
★
★
Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) (autonomous)
★
★
Moldovan Orthodox Church (autonomous, territorial jurisdiction contested by the Romanian Church)
★
★
Metropolis of Western Europe (declared, but not recognized universally as autonomous)
★
★
Japanese Orthodox Church (autonomy not universally recognized)
★
★ Belarusian exarchate
★
★ Estonian exarchate
★
★
Latvian Orthodox Church
★
★ Hungarian exarchate
★
★
Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (autonomous; union completed on May 17, 2007.)
★
Serbian Orthodox Church
★
★
Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric (autonomous)
★
★ Metropolitanate of Zagreb, Ljubljana and All Italy (Croatia, Slovenia, Italy)
★
★
Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral (Montenegro)
★
★ Metropolitanate of Dabar-Bosna (Bosnia-Herzegovina)
★
★
Serbian Orthodox Church in the USA and Canada
★
★ Bishopric in Australia and New Zealand
★
★ Bishopric in Britain and Scandinavia (Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark)
★
★ Bishopric of Buda (Hungary,
Czech Republic, and Slovakia)
★
★ Bishopric in
Central Europe (Germany, Austria, and Switzerland)
★
★ Bishopric in Timişoara (Romania)
★
★ Bishopric in Western Europe (France, Belgium, Netherlands, and Spain)
★
Romanian Orthodox Church
★
★
Metropolis of Bessarabia (autonomous, with the rank of an
exarchate, i.e. having the right to have parishes outside its canonical jurisdiction - de facto has in Russia and USA; territorial jurisdiction contested by the Russian Church)
★
★ Metropolis in France, Western and
Southern Europe (British Islands, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy)
★
★ Metropolis in Germany and Central Europe (Germany, Northern and Central Europe)
★
★ Romanian Orthodox Archdiocese in America and Canada (USA, Canada, Argentina, Venezuela)
★
★ Romanian Orthodox Bishopric Dacia Felix (in Serbia)
★
Bulgarian Orthodox Church
★
★ Bulgarian Eastern Orthodox Church Diocese of America, Canada and Australia
★
★ Diocese in Central and Western Europe
★
Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church
★
Cypriot Orthodox Church
★
Church of Greece
★
Polish Orthodox Church
★
Albanian Orthodox Church
★
Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church
★
Orthodox Church in America (recognized as autocephalous only by the Russian, Bulgarian, Georgian, Polish, and Czech-Slovak Churches)
★
★
Orthodox Church in America Albanian Archdiocese
★
★
Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese
★
★
Romanian Orthodox Episcopate in America
★
★
Orthodox Church in America Parishes in Australia
Orthodox Churches and communities not in communion with others (s)
★
Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church
★ Bulgarian Alternative Synod
★
Orthodox Church in Italy
★
Macedonian Orthodox Church
★
Montenegrin Orthodox Church
★
Russian True Orthodox Church
★
Karamanli Turkish Orthodox Church
★
Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Kiev Patriarchate)
★
Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church
★ Autonomous
Ukrainian Orthodox Church in America
Old Believers
★
Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (
Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy)
★
Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church (
Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy)
★
Russian Old-Orthodox Church (Novozybkovskaya Hierarchy)
★
Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church (
Pomortsy)
Old Calendarist
★
Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece
★ Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians, USA
★
Orthodox Church of Greece (Holy Synod in Resistance)
★
Old C 
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