EAST AFRICAN CAMPAIGN (WORLD WAR II)

The 'East African Campaign' refers to the battles fought in East Africa during World War II. The battles were fought between the forces of the British Empire, the British Commonwealth of Nations, and several allies and the forces of the Italian East African Empire. This campaign is often seen as part of the North African Campaign.
The vast majority of the British allied forces were from the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth forces included troops from the Sudan, British Somaliland, British East Africa, the Indian Empire, South Africa, Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, and British West Africa (Nigeria and Gold Coast). There was even a small commando unit from the British Mandate of Palestine. In addition to the British and Commonwealth forces, there were Ethiopian irregular forces, Free French forces, and Free Belgian forces.
The Italian forces included Italians, East African colonials (Eritreans, Abyssinians, and Somali Dubats), and even a small number of German volunteers (German Motorized Company).

Background and political situation

On 9 May 1936, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini proclaimed his "Italian East African Empire" (''Africa Orientale Italiana'', AOI). Mussolini's AOI was formed from the newly-occupied Ethiopia and the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Italy did not come by its East African colony easily. During the First Italo-Abyssinian War from 1895 to 1896, Italy was thwarted in its colonial ambitions when the forces of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia soundly defeated an Italian army at the Battle of Adowa. During the Second Italo-Abyssinian War from 1935 to 1936, the Italians again invaded Ethiopia and, by using weapons like poison gas, were finally able to defeat the Ethiopians.
On 10 June 1940, when Mussolini entered World War II against the British and the French, the Italian forces in Africa became a potential threat to British supply routes along the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. An Italian invasion of either French Somaliland or British Somaliland were reasonable choices. But Mussolini initially looked past these small, isolated colonies and, instead, looked forward to propaganda triumphs in the Sudan and British East Africa (Kenya, Tanganyika, and Uganda). The Italian Central Command (''Commando Centrale'') was planning for a war starting after 1942. In the summer of 1940, they were not prepared for a prolonged war or to occupy extensive areas of the African continent. ^[1].
In the early part of the war, British General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command, had a total of 86,000 British and Commonwealth troops at his disposal to handle potential conflicts in Libya, Iraq, Syria, Iran, and East Africa. Worse, his forces were spread out in Egypt, Palestine, Sudan, British Somaliland, Kenya, and several other locations. Faced with forces spaced out along the enemy frontiers at intervals of about eight men to the mile, Wavell resolved to fight the Italians with delaying actions at the main posts and hope for the best. The delaying actions, bolstered by aggressive raids into Italian territory, were fought with skill and spirit. From July 1940 onwards, British and Commonwealth reinforcements started to appear in significant numbers.
Short of men, Wavell needed all of the local support he could find. One answer was Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. The deposed emperor had been living in England ever since the Italians invaded his country in 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.
In July, the British government recognised Emperor Selassie and promised to help him to reclaim his throne. But, before July, related activities were already taking place.
On 13 June, only three days after Mussolini declared war against Britain and France, a "Mr. Strong" took off in a Short Sunderland flying boat from Poole Harbour on the south coast of England. Emperor Selassie, alias Mr. Strong, was headed home. On 25 June, Mr. Strong arrived in Alexandria, Egypt. Seven days later, as "Mr. Smith," he flew to Khartoum in the Sudan. In Khartoum, Mr. Smith met Lieutenant-General William Platt. Emperor Selassie and Platt discussed plans to free Ethiopia from the Italian yoke. ^[2]
At the end of October 1940, because of the increasing Axis threat in the Middle East, the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden convened a conference in Khartoum. In attendance were Emperor Selassie, South African General Jan Smuts (who held an advisory brief for the region with Winston Churchill), the Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command, Archibald Wavell and the senior military commanders in East Africa including Lieutenant-General Platt and Lieutenant-General Cunningham. The general plan of attack, including the use of Ethiopian irregular forces, was agreed upon at this conference. ^[3]
In November 1940, the British and Commonwealth forces received an incredible intelligence advantage. The government code and cypher school at Bletchley Park broke the high grade cypher of the Italian Royal Army (''Regio Esercito'') in East Africa. Later, during the same month, the replacement cypher for the Italian Royal Air Force (''Regia Aeronautica'') was broken by the Combined Bureau, Middle East (CBME). From this point on, the commanders-in-chief in Cairo knew Italian plans as soon as they were issued. ^[4]

Military situation

''Italian ground forces''

Amedeo, Duke of Aosta was the Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa. He had between 250,000 and 280,000 Italian troops available to him. On 10 June 1940, the Italians were organized in four command sectors: the Northern Sector (the area near Asmara, Eritrea), the Southern Sector (Gimma, Ethiopia), the Eastern Sector (near border with French Somaliland and British Somaliland), and the Giuba Sector (southern Somalia near Kismayo, Italian Somaliland). Lieutenant-General Luigi Frusci commanded the Northern Sector. General Pietro Gazzera commanded the Southern Sector. General Guglielmo Nasi commanded the Eastern Sector. Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone commanded the Giuba Sector. The Duke of Aosta commanded from Addis Ababa in Ethiopia.
The Duke of Aosta's command included two Italian infantry divisions: The 40th Infantry Division "Hunters of Africa" (''Cacciatori d'Africa '') and the 65th Infantry Division "Savoy Grenadiers" (''Granatieri di Savoia''). The Italians also had one battalion of elite mountain troops (''Alpini''), one battalion of highly-mobile infantry (''Bersaglieri'') battalions, numerous Fascist paramilitary Blackshirts (''Camice Nere'') battalions, and other smaller units. Most Italian troops in East Africa (about 70%) were local East African askaris. While the askaris of the regular Eritrean battalions of the ''Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali'' (Royal Corps of Colonial Troops) were amongst the best Italian units in East Africa, the majority of the colonial troops in AOI were recruited, trained, and equipped to do no more than maintain order in the colony. The Somali Dubats recruited from border tribesmen provided useful light infantry and skirmishers but the irregular ''bande'' were much less effective. Ethiopian askaris and irregulars, recruited during the brief Italian occupation, deserted in large numbers after the outbreak of war.
Equipment for the Italian ground forces in East Africa was a mixed bag. The forces were equipped with about 3,300 machine guns, 24 medium tanks, a large number of tankettes (turret-less, two-man machine-gun carriers), 126 armored cars and trucks, and 813 pieces of artillery. Unfortunately, there was limited munitions available for the machine guns, the tanks and armored cars were generally obsolete, the artillery was of many different calibers (a logistics nightmare) and much of the artillery was very old (many guns dated back to the World War I era and before). The most common rifle of the Italian troops was the Mod. 91 or old "91", called so because they were designed in 1891. Worse, the Italians in East Africa were isolated with very little chance for re-inforcements or re-supply.
Another problem that afflicted the Italian army was the lack of medicine for malaria. Malaria was an endemic disease in the Horn of Africa area. During the last months of fighting in the mountains in 1941, medicine for the Italians was all but gone. It is estimated that nearly one-quarter of the Italians troops defending Amba Alagi in April 1941 had malaria during the siege (the Italians at Amba Alagi had no medicine for malaria). The Duke of Aosta, Governor-General of Italian East Africa and commander at Amba Alagi, was himself afflicted with malaria during the siege. He died of tuberculosis and malaria on 3 March 1942, a few months after his surrender.

''British and Commonwealth ground forces''

The British and Commonwealth forces in East Africa amounted to about 30,000 men under Lieutenant-General William Platt in the Sudan, Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham in British East Africa, and Colonel Arthur Reginald Chater in British Somaliland. The British and Commonwealth forces were slightly better equipped, had access to re-supply and re-inforcements, and enjoyed something of an advantage in armour and artillery. However, they were vastly outnumbered by the Italian forces available in Italian East Africa alone. To make matters worse for the British, the Italians had at least another 208,000 men (fourteen divisions) available in Libya.
On 10 June 1940, in all of the Sudan, prior to the arrival of the Indian 4th Infantry Division and Indian 5th Infantry Division, Platt had only three infantry battalions (which were absorbed into the under-strength 5th Indian Division when it arrived)^[5] and the machine-gun companies of the Sudan Defence Force. The three battalions were the 1st Battalion Worcestershire Regiment, the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment and the 2nd Battalion West Yorkshire Regiment which in mid-September became part of Indian 29th, 10th and 9th Infantry Brigades respectively.
In Kenya, the King's African Rifles (KAR) was composed of two brigade-strength units organized as a "Northern Brigade" and a "Southern Brigade." In 1938, the combined strength of both units amounted to 94 officers, 60 non-commissioned officers, and 2,821 African other ranks. After the outbreak of war, these units provided the trained nucleus for the rapid expansion of the KAR. By March 1940, the strength of the KAR had reached 883 officers, 1,374 non-commissioned officers, and 20,026 African other ranks. The size of a KAR battalion was established at 36 officers, 44 non-commissioned officers and other ranks, and 1,050 African other ranks. Andrew Mollo, "The Armed Forces of World War II'', p. 133
Initially the KAR deployed as the 1st East African Infantry Brigade and the 2nd East African Infantry Brigade. The first brigade was responsible for coastal defense and the second was responsible for the defense of the interior. By the end of July, two addional East African brigades were formed, the 3rd East African Infantry Brigade and the 6th East African Infantry Brigade. Initially a Coastal Division and a Northern Frontier District Division were planned. But, instead, the 11th African Division and the 12th African Division were formed.
On 1 June, the first South African unit arrived in Mombassa, Kenya. By the end of July, the 1st South African Infantry Brigade Group joined the first unit. On 13 August, the 1st South African Division was formed. This division included the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Infantry Brigade Groups. By the end of the year, approximately 27,000 South Africans were serving in East Africa. The South Africans were either in the 1st South African Division, the 11th African Division, or the 12th African Division. Each South African brigade group consisted of three rifle battalions, an armored car company, and supporting signal, engineer, and medical units. ^[6]
By July, under the terms of a war contingency plan, two brigades were provided on rotation for service in Kenya by the "Royal West African Frontier Force." One brigade was from the Gold Coast (Ghana) and one brigade was from Nigeria. The Nigerian brigade, together with two East African brigades (the KAR brigades) and some South Africans, formed 11th African Division. The 12th African Division had a similar formation with the Ghanaian brigade taking the place of the Nigerian brigade.
In British Somaliland, Chater commanded the Somaliland Camel Corps and the re-inforcements that were trickling in. At the outbreak of hostilities, the camel corps had a total of 1,475 men to defend the colony. This number also includes a battalion of the Northern Rhodesian Regiment.

''Ethiopian patriot forces''

A significant aspect of the Allied campaign to retake Ethiopia was irregular forces referred to by the British as "patriots" (or ''Arbegnoch''). Wavell expected that these forces would be able to tie down large numbers of Italian units throughout the colony, although Platt in Khartoum did not believe that Hailie Selassie had the support of the majority of the people and was lukewarm towards providing support to the patriot groups^[7]. From August 1940 ''Mission 101'' under Colonel Daniel Sandford had been operating successfully in Gojjam province. Its role was to send "Operational Centres" - small groups of officers and NCOs - to supply arms and training to the Ethiopian patriots and coordinate attacks on Italian forces. Sandford, after serving with distinction in World War I, had spent the rest of his career in Ethiopia and the Sudan and had become a close friend and adviser to Hailie Selassie.^[8]
Hailie Selassie with the encouragement of Sandford had arrived in Khartoum in July 1940 to a cold reception from Platt. However, Anthony Eden's Khartoum conference in October agreed to boost supplies and support to the Ethiopian irregular forces.^[9]Part of the increased support saw the posting in early November of Major Orde Wingate (who had spent five inter-war years with the Sudan Defence Force and was later to gain fame in Burma with the Chindits) to Khartoum as a staff officer with the brief of liaising between Platt, ''Mission 101'' and the Emperor. Here he impressed Hailie Selassie with his drive and enthusiasm.
Platt's poor opinion of Hailie Selassie, Sandford and Wingate, however, meant that he paid little attention to the operation and the resulting lack of clear areas of responsibility and chains of command (together with Wingate's naturally abrasive manner) meant that for the whole campaign there was friction and animosity between Wingate and the other commanders.^[10]
Wingate formulated a plan for action in Ethiopia which he presented to Wavell and senior staff in Cairo in early December 1940. The plan included the formation of a small regular force under Wingate to act as a spearhead for military operations in Gojjam. He argued that:
This force, was named Gideon Force, after the biblical judge Gideon, and was comprised of the Sudan Defence Force Frontier battalion and the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion together with four 3-inch mortars (in place of artillery) and 15,000 camels to provide transport and carry supplies. Although he did not formally take command until 6 February 1941 he set off with ''Gideon Force'' into Gojjam in January^[11]
Gideon Force was able to travel relatively freely throughout the countryside. At any time during its brief history, the Italian East African Empire was only nominally under Italian control. It is estimated that as much as one third of Ethiopia remained under the control of Ethiopian nobles^[12]
The Italians did not endear themselves to the Ethiopians. On 22 May 1936, when General Rodolfo Graziani was made Viceroy of Ethiopia, the Italians may have possibly chosen the man least likely to pacify the country. On 6 June, Mussolini cabled Graziani: "All rebels captured are to be shot." This gave the new Viceroy, infamous for his pacification of Libya, all the power he needed. ^[13] Soon, Graziani's reputation for brutal repression earned him the title: "the Butcher of Ethiopia." For their part, the Ethiopian patriots gave the Italian troops every reason to fear losing to them. The Ethiopians did not often take prisoners.
Very important to the success of the operations in north west Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie I crossed the border from Sudan to join the force of Ethiopian patriots. Sizeable patriot forces were already concentrated in the provinces of Gojjam, Shoa, Gimma, Galla-Sidama, and Harage. Ras Desta and Ras Imru, two Ethiopian army commanders from the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and still loyal to Emperor Selassie, had continued a guerilla war against the Italians. They and the forces they commanded awaited the return of the emperor. ^[13]

Destroyed British motorized convoy near Berbera (august 1940)

''Italian air power''

ln June 1940, the Italian Royal Air Force (''Regia Aeronautica'') in East Africa had between two-hundred and three-hundred "combat ready" aircraft (Italian East Africa Air Command). Some Italian aircraft were obsolete, but the Italians also had Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 bombers and Fiat CR-42 fighters. In relative terms, these were some of the best aircraft available on either side in East Africa. In addition, the Italian aircraft were often based at better airfields. As the war began, Mussolini's airmen were justifiably full of confidence. But, cut off from Italy as they were, there were always the growing problems with lack of fuel, lack of munitions, lack of spare parts, and lack of replacements.

''British and commonwealth air power''

The roughly one-hundred aircraft available to the British and Commonwealth forces at the beginning of the campaign were dispersed as follows: In the north (Sudan) were two Royal Air Force (RAF) bomber squadrons at Port Sudan (one of these squadron was equipped with obsolete aircraft) and the RAF Army Co-operation Squadron on the Sudan frontier. In the south (Kenya) were No. 12 Bomber Squadron of the South African Air Force (SAAF) (equipped with Junkers Ju 86 bombers), No. 11 Bomber Squadron of the SAAF (equipped with Fairey Battles), No. 40 Army Co-operation Squadron SAAF (equipped with Hawker Hartebees), No. 2 Fighter Squadron, SAAF (equipped with Hawker Furies), and No. 237 (Southern Rhodesian) Army Co-operation Squadron (equipped with Hawker Hardys).
Unlike the Italians, the aircraft available to the British and Commonwealth forces got better with time. But, as can be seen above, much of the equipment initially available tended to be obsolete. Even so, the British and Commonwealth forces managed to make do with what they had. The South Africans even pressed an old Valencia biplane into service as a bomber.^[15]

''Italian Red Sea Flotilla''

The Italian Royal Navy [1] (''Regia Marina'') maintained the "Red Sea Flotilla" in East Africa. Most vessels were stationed in the port of Massawa in Eritrea. However, lesser port facilities existed at Mogadishu in Italian Somaliland and also at Assab in Eritrea. The Red Sea Flotilla included seven destroyers organized into two squadrons, five motor torpedo boats (MTB, or ''Motoscafo Armato Silurante'', MAS) organized into one squadron, and eight submarines organized into two squadons.
The Italian naval squadrons were viewed by the British as a threat to Allied convoys heading from the Gulf of Aden to the Red Sea [2]. As Italian fuel supplies in Massawa dwindled, so did the Italian Navy's opportunity for offensive action in the Red Sea.
The Red Sea Flotilla and its homeport of Massawa also represented a link between Axis Europe and the Italian and German maintained naval facilities located in the Tientsin and Tsingtao concession zones in China.

''British Eastern Fleet''

The British Eastern Fleet faced the Italian Red Sea Flotilla. Until World War II, the Indian Ocean had been considered a "British lake". The Indian Ocean was ringed by significant British and Commonwealth possessions. Much of the strategic supplies needed by the United Kingdom in both peace and war had to pass across the Indian Ocean. These included: Persian oil, Malayan rubber, Indian tea, and Australian and New Zealand foodstuffs. In war, Britain relied upon the loyalty and manpower of Australia and New Zealand and these had to be transported. Safe passage for British cargo ships was critical.

Italian offensives in Africa during 1940, between June and August

Despite this, the Royal Navy had tended to station its older ships in the east and used the China Station and the Far East Station as sources of reinforcements for other theatres. Even when gravely threatened, the Eastern Fleet largely consisted of older capital ships that had been deemed too slow or too vulnerable to be of use in the Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean Sea.

Opening moves

Starting in June 1940, the Italians tested the resolve of the British and Commonwealth forces along the borders of the Sudan and Kenya and in the shipping lanes of the Red Sea.
On 13 June, early in the morning, three Italian Caproni bombers appeared and bombed the Rhodesian air base at the fort located at Wajir in Kenya. The Rhodesian aircraft were still warming up and preparing to take-off on a dawn patrol. The Capronis bombed the fort, the landing-ground, and nearby housing. The King's African Rifles (KAR), then garrisoning the fort, lost four killed and eleven wounded. Two Rhodesian aircraft were badly damaged and a large dump of aviation fuel was set on fire. Following this, the air base at Wajir received regular visits from the Italians every second or third day and the Rhodesian pilots were made to realize the significant shortcomings in speed and fire-power of the Hawker Hardys they themselves flew.
At dawn on 17 June, the Rhodesians struck back and supported a successful raid by the KAR on the Italian desert outpost of El Wak in Italian Somaliland, some ninety miles northeast of Wajir. The Rhodesians bombed and set alight the thatched mud huts and generally harassed the enemy troops. But, since the main fighting at that time was centered around Italian advances towards Moyale in Kenya, the Rhodesians concentrated on that town. In conjunction with the South African Air Force, the Rhodesians undertook the task of reconnaissance and bombing in that disputed area.
Early in July, Italian forces in Eritrea crossed the Sudan border and forced the small British garrison holding the railway junction at Kassala to withdraw. The Italians also seized the small British fort at Gallabat, just over the border from Metemma, some 200 miles to the south of Kassala. Even the villages of Ghezzan, Kurmuk and Dumbode on the blue Nile were conquered. Having taken Kassala and Gallabat, however, the Italians decided to venture no further - because of lack of fuel - and they proceeded to fortify Kassala with anti-tank defences, machine-gun posts, and strong-points. The Italians sent a brigade-strong garrison to Kassala.
In Kenya, after heavy fighting, the Italians occupied "Fort Harrington" in Moyale. At the end of July, Italian forces reached Debel and Buna. These small villages, nearly one-hundred kilometers from the Ethiopian-Kenyan border, were to be the deepest points inside Kenya reached by the Italian army.
In the first days of August, an Italian force of irregular Eritreans raided Port Sudan^[16], as a prelude to the Italian campaign to conquer British Somaliland.

''French Somaliland''

Initially, an Italian force was assembled to capture the port city of Djibouti, the major French base in French Somaliland (modern Djibouti). The French commander, Brigadier-General Paul Legentilhomme, had some 7,000 men in seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry. Legentilhomme also had three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of light tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of camel corps, and an assortment of aircraft. But, after the fall of France in June 1940, the Vichy French government's neutrality allowed the Italians to shift their focus to the more lightly defended British Somaliland.^[17]
On 18 June 1940, Legentilhomme left French Somaliland and joined the Free French. But French Somaliland, the colony Legentilhomme once commanded, remained Vichy until 28 December 1942.^[18]

''The Italian invasion of British Somaliland''

Main articles: Italian conquest of British Somaliland

The Italian invasion of British Somaliland in august 1940

On 3 August 1940, approximately 25,000 Italian troops invaded British Somaliland. The Italians were commanded by General Guglielmo Nasi.^[19]
The Italian force attacking British Somaliland in August included five colonial brigades, three Blackshirt battalions, and three bands (''banda'') of native troops.^[20] The Italians had armoured vehicles (a small number of both light and medium tanks), artillery, and, for the moment, superior air support.
The Italians were opposed by a British contingent of about four-thousand men consisting of the Somaliland Camel Corps (commanded by Colonel Arthur Reginald Chater), elements of the 2nd (Nyasaland) Battalion King's African Rifles (KAR) and the 1st Battalion Northern Rhodesian Regiment, the 3rd Battalion 15th Punjab Regiment, and the 2nd Battalion Black Watch.^[21]^[22]
The Italians advanced in three columns, with the western column advancing towards Zeila, the central column towards Hargeisa, and the eastern column towards Odweina in the south. Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone commanded the strong central column. Colonel Chater, used his camel corps to skirmish with and screen against the advancing Italians as the other British and Commonwealth forces pulled back towards Tug Argan.

''Battle of Tug Argan''

On 5 August, within two days of the invasion, the towns of Zeila and Hargeisa were taken. The occupation of Zeila effectively sealed British Somaliland off from French Somaliland. Odweina fell the following day and the Italian central and eastern columns combined to launch attacks against the main British and Commonwealth positions at Tug Argan.
On 7 August the British and Commonwealth forces in British Somaliland received reinforcements with the arrival of the 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment. On 11 August, a new commander, Major-General Alfred Godwin-Austen, reached Tug Argan.
But, early on 15 August, Godwin-Austen concluded that further resistance to the Italians would be futile in Tug Argan. He contacted the British Middle East Command headquarters in Cairo, Egypt. Godwin-Austen requested and received permission to withdraw his forces from British Somaliland. The determined effort of the Black Watch battalion, which covered the retreat, allowed the entire British and Commonwealth contingent to withdraw to Berbera with reduced losses. By 17 August, most of the contigent was successfully evacuated from Berbera to Aden. Rather than evacuate, the Somaliland Camel Corps was disbanded.

''Aftermath of the Italian invasion of British Somaliland''

On 19 August 1940, the Italians took control of Berbera and then moved down the coast to complete their conquest of British Somaliland. The British colony was annexed to Italian East Africa.^[23]
British and Commonwealth losses in the short campaign were relatively low:^[20]

★ 38 killed in action (KIA)

★ 71 wounded

★ 49 missing
By contrast, the Italians losses were almost ten times that of the British:

★ 465 KIA (mostly colonial troops)

★ 1,530 wounded

★ 34 missing
The British Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill, criticized General Archibald Wavell concerning the loss of British Somaliland. It was Wavell's Middle East Command which was responsible for the loss of the colony. Because of the low casualty rate, Churchill fretted that the British had abandoned the colony without enough of a fight.
In response to this criticism, Wavell claimed that Somaliland was a textbook withdrawal in the face of superior numbers. He pointed out to Churchill that “A bloody butcher’s bill is not the sign of a good tactician.” According to Churchill's staff, Wavell's retort moved Churchill to greater fury than they had ever seen before. ^[25]
The conquest of the British Somaliland was the only campaign victory Italy achieved -- without the support of German troops -- during World War II against the Allies.

Italian M11/39 medium tanks in battle action at Zeila (British Somaliland) on August 1940

The main insights from this campaign are the following:

★ The invasion of British Somaliland showed that Italian forces could co-ordinate columns separated by many miles of desert.

★ British forces showed good discipline in the retreat and were able to salvage most of their forces.

★ The invasion of British Somaliland was the first campaign the Italians won in World War II.

★ British Somaliland was the first British colony to fall to enemy forces in World War II.

★ After the first months of the war were over, Mussolini boasted that Italy had conquered a territory the size of England in the Horn of Africa. Even if the Italians had nothing to show for their offensive efforts except for the colony of British Somaliland, the Sudanese border outposts of Karora, Gallabat, Kurmak and Kassala, and the area in Kenya around Moyale and Buna.

''Action at sea''

The Italian Red Sea Flotilla saw early action as they attempted to make their presence known. But they introduced themselves at a high cost. In mid to late June, four of the eight submarines based in Massawa were lost. On 15 June, the Italian submarine "Macalle" ran aground and was a total loss. On 16 June 1940, the Italian submarine "Galileo Galilei" sank the Norwegian tanker "James Stove" approximately 12 miles south of Aden. On 19 June, the "Galileo Galilei" was on patrol off of Aden and, after a gun duel, was captured by the armed trawler “Moonstone.” On 23 June, in the Gulf of Aden but off of French Somaliland, the Italian submarine "Evangelista Toricelli" was sunk by the British destroyers “Kandahar” and “Kingston” with assistance from the sloop “Shoreham.” During this action, the British destroyer “Khartoum” suffered an internal explosion and sank in shallow water off Perim Island. The British destroyer was a total loss. Later on 23 June, the Italian submarine "Luigi Galvani" sank the Indian patrol sloop "Pathan" in the Indian Ocean. However, on 24 June, the "Luigi Galvani" was sunk by the sloop "Falmouth" in the Gulf of Oman.
During the time between the Italian conquest of British Somaliland and the Allied counter-offensive, much attention shifted to the naval sphere and to the activities of the Italian Red Sea Flotilla. Fuel and parts shortages continued to hamper the ability of the Italian flotilla to interfere with either convoys or the vessels of the British Eastern Fleet.
On 13 August, the Italian submarine "Gauleo Ferraras" tried to intercept the British battleship Royal Sovereign in the Red Sea. The Royal Sovereign, coming from Suez, escaped the Italian ambush and made it safely to Aden.
On 6th September, the Italian submarine "Guglielmo" waited for prey south of the Farisan Islands. The "Guglielmo" succeeded in torpedoing and sinking only one ship, the oil tanker "Atlas."
Between 20 October and 21 October, the Italian submarines "Guglielmo" and "Gauleo Ferraras" tried to intercept a large British Red Sea convoy coming from the Indian Ocean and sailing to Port Sudan and Suez. The BN7 convoy included 31 cargo vessels escorted by the New Zealand cruiser "Leander," the British destroyer "Kimberley," and five sloops. The convoy also had an air escort provided by 50 fighters and bombers based in Aden. The "Guglielmo" and "Gauleo Ferraras" did not succeed in intercepting the convoy. Later, the same convoy was intercepted and attacked by three Italian destroyers.
On 21 November, the British Red Sea convoy BN7 was attacked by the Italian destroyers "Pantera," "Leone," and "Francesco Nullo." The convoy escorts drove the Italian destroyers off. Two of the convoy escorts, the New Zealand cruiser "Leander" and the British destroyer "Kimberley," drove the Italian destroyer "Francesco Nullo" ashore with their combined gunfire. The "Francesco Nullo" was destroyed the next day by Royal Air Force (RAF) Blenheim light bombers.
The armed merchant cruiser "Ramb I" broke out of Massawa with the colonial ship "Eritrea" and the armed merchant cruiser "Ramb II." The "Ramb I" and "Ramb II" were known as auxiliary cruisers or merchant raiders, armed ships which disguised themselves as noncombatant merchant vessels. "Ramb I" and "Ramb II" were relatively modern and fast. They had been transformed into auxiliary cruisers with the installation of four 120 mm guns and some 13.2 mm anti-aircraft machine guns. The "Eritrea" was similar in concept, but, while older and slower, was able to carry more cargo. The "Eritrea" was armed with four 120mm guns, two 40mm guns, and two 13.2 mm machine guns. On 27 February 1941, the "Ramb I" was located off of the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean by the New Zealand cruiser "Leander" and was sunk. Both the "Eritrea" and the "Ramb II" evaded detection and reached Kobe, Japan. [3]

''Britain's initial offensive actions''

The Indian 5th Infantry Division started to arrive in the Sudan in early September 1940. Soon after, a surprise attack was staged to take back Gallabat. The attacking force comprised William "Bill" Slim's Indian 10th Infantry Brigade of the Indian 5th Infantry Division. Slim was accompanied by a squadron of 12 medium and light tanks, a field regiment of artillery and supported by the RAF.^[26] The attack began with the successful capture of Gallabat on 6 November which was followed by an assault on Metemma, on the other side of the ravine forming the border. However, the Italian defenders occupied strong prepared positions and were supported by a fierce onslaught from the counter-attacking Italian air force (''Regia Aeronautica''). Italian aircraft appeared from Gondar in great strength to support the hard-pressed Italian infantry. The Italian airmen shot down seven RAF Gloster Gladiators whilst losing five Fiat CR-42s and, for forty-eight hours, proceeded to methodically bomb the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment and the 3rd Battalion 18th Royal Garwhal Rifles. They did this until the British and Commonwealth troops were compelled to withdraw from the positions they had just won. 10th Brigade re-occupied the ridge west of Gallabat three days later but the operation against Metemma was not continued.^[27]
For the next two months 10th Indian Brigade and after them 9th Indian Brigade (who relieved 10th in December) simulated the activities of a full division. They blazed lines of communication east from Gedaref and created dummy airfields and stores depots to convince Italian Intelligence that Platt's main thrust would be towards Gondar rather than Kassala.^[28]
On 16 October, ''Gazelle Force'' was created in the Sudan as a mobile reconnaissance and fighting force. It comprised three motor machine-gun companies from the Sudan Defence Force, the 1st Duke of York's Own Skinner's Horse (the reconnaissance regiment from the Indian 5th Infantry Division), and some mobile artillery. ''Gazelle Force'' was commanded by Colonel Frank Messervy.^[29]
Throughout November, December and early January, Lieutenant-General Platt continued to apply constant pressure on the Italians all along the border with the Sudan. He applied this pressure by continuous patrolling and raiding with both his ground troops and his air force. During this time, better British aircraft started to replace some of the older models. The British and Commonwealth air forces were now starting to get Hawker Hurricanes and more Gloster Gladiators which were better or at least the equal of the Italian Fiat CR-42 fighters and Savoia-Marchetti bombers.
On 6 December, a large concentration of Italian motor transport a few miles north of Kassala was bombed and strafed by Commonwealth aircraft. The same aircraft then proceeded to machine-gun from low level the nearby positions of the Italian Blackshirts and colonial infantry. A few days later, the same aircraft bombed the Italian base at Keru, fifty miles east of Kassala. The pilots had the satisfaction of seeing supply dumps, stores, and transport enveloped in flame and smoke as they flew away.
One morning in mid-December, a force of Italian fighters paid a visit to a Rhodesian landing-strip near Kassala and strafed some Hawker Hardys on the ground. As a result of the Italian attack, several aircraft were destroyed. However, there were no casualties.

''Italians adopt a defensive posture''

After the conquest of British Somaliland, the Italians adopted a more defensive posture. Throughout late 1940, the setbacks suffered by Italian forces elsewhere in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Desert, in the skies over Britain, and in Greece prompted the new Italian Chief-of-the-General-Staff in Rome, General Ugo Cavallero, to adopt a new course of action in East Africa. In December 1940, he argued to the Italian High Command that the Italian forces in East Africa should abandon offensive actions against the Sudan and against the Suez Canal. Instead, Cavallero argued that Italy should focus on defending the Italian East African Empire. ^[30]
Amedeo, Duke of Aosta also requested permission to withdraw from the Sudanese frontier. In response to Cavallero and the Duke of Aosta, the Italian Supreme Command (''Commando Supremo'') in Rome issued orders for the Italian forces in East Africa to withdraw to better defensive positions. This information was quickly decrypted by the British and, knowing the Italian plans, Lieutenant-General Platt was able to start his offensive into Eritrea on 18 January 1941, three weeks ahead of schedule. ^[4]
Orders were sent to General Luigi Frusci, Acting Governor of Eritrea and commander of the Italian forces there, to withdraw from Kassala and Metemma on the lowlands along the Sudan/Eritrea border. Frusci was ordered to hold instead the more easily defended mountain passes on the roads running eastward from Kassala to Agordat and Metemma to Gondar. However, Frusci chose not withdraw, arguing that withdrawal would involve too great a loss of prestige. Furthermore, Kassala was an important railway junction, the holding of which prevented the British from using the railway to carry supplies from Port Sudan on the coast to the base at Gedaref.

Allied counter-offensive

After the fall of British Somaliland, General Archibald Wavell's plan for the counter-offensive by British and Commonwealth forces included a "northern front" led by Lieutenant-General William Platt and a "southern front" led by Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham. A third front would be created by the forces which re-took British Somaliand by sea.
Simply put, Wavell planned for Platt to advance southward from the Sudan, through Eritrea, and into Ethiopia and for Cunningham to advance northwards from Kenya, through Italian Somaliland, and into Ethiopia. While Platt advanced from the north and Cunningham from the south, Wavell planned for a third force to be landed in British Somaliland in an amphibious assault and to then re-take that colony prior to advancing into Ethiopia. According to the plan, all three forces were to ultimately join forces at the capital of Italian East Africa, Addis Ababa.
The capture of Italian East Africa would remove land-based threats to supplies and reinforcements coming from Australia, India, South Africa, and British East Africa and passing through the Suez Canal for the campaign in North Africa and open the overland route from Cape Town to Cairo.

The emperor returns

On 18 January 1941, Emperor Selassie crossed the border near the village of Um Iddla. Two days later he joined Gideon Force which was already in Ethiopia. The standard of the Lion of Judah was raised again.^[32]
The crossing was made some 450 miles northwest of Addis Ababa, the capital Emperor Salassie was forced to flee when the Italian General Pietro Badoglio captured the city on 5 May 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.
Emperor Selassie and Gideon Force under Major Orde Wingate conducted a campaign for the next three months in the Ethiopian province of Gojjam where they initially faced opposing forces of about 25,000 men^[33] Emperor Selassie and Gideon Force rallied Ethiopian patriots wherever they went using powerful loudspeakers which had been supplied to the patriot forces to announce the presence of the emperor and inducing local tribal leaders and Italian askaris to desert the Italian cause. Using surprise and bluff, this relatively small force disrupted Italian supply lines and provided important intelligence to the more conventional British and Commonwealth forces.
In March there was a furious clash between Sandford and Wingate. Sandford maintained in a signal to HQ in Khartoum that the resources being absorbed by Wingate for the "comparatively slow advance of [his] conventional forces" was "paralysing Patriot activities by diverting rifles, ammunition and pack saddles exclusively to Wingate's force, instead of giving equal priority to the Patriots" which would have a greater impact through swift and dispersed action not just in Gojjam but with the assistance of ''Mission 101'', in other provinces as well. This was followed by a signal of rebuttal from Wingate to Platt who had to rebuke them both.^[34] The dispute overflowed into Wingate's formations leading to the mutiny of the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion at the start of April. Wingate had to leave his sick-bed (he was suffering from an attack of malaria) to dismiss the battalion's commander, after which it rallied to its new leader and performed well for the rest of the campaign.^[35]
In less than three months, Gideon force and an ever growing army of Ethiopian patriots were advancing on the Italian fortifications at Debra Markos, the capital of Gojjam. Because of the critical situation to the south the Duke of Aosta ordered the withdrawal from Debra Markos and on 4 April 12,000 people (including 4,000 women) under their commander, Colonel Maraventano, began the 200 mile treck to Safartak and then beyond to Dessie. On 6 April Hailie Selassie entered Debra Markos and was formally greeted by Wingate, ''Gideon Force'' and Ras Hailu the powerful local patriot leader.^[36]
While Debra Markos and Addis Derra were being captured, other Ethiopian patriots under Ras Abeba Aregai consolidated themselves around Addis Ababa in preparation for Emperor Sellassie's return. In response to the rapidly advancing British and Commonwealth forces and to the general uprising of Ethiopian patriots, the Italians in Ethiopia retreated to the mountain fortresses of Gondar, Amba Alagi, Dessie, and Gimma. ^[32]
From Debra Markos, Wingate followed the retreating Italians and undertook a series of harrying actions. In early May most of ''Gideon Force'' had to break off in order to provide a suitable escort for Hailie Salassie's formal entry into Addis Ababa. Following the ceremonials Wingate returned to ''Safforce'', the main ''Mission 101'' force which was harassing Maraventano's column. By 18 May the column was dug in at Agibor.
Both sides by this time were short of food, ammunition, water and medical supplies. Wingate, sent a message of complete bluff to Maraventano telling of very substantial forces about to join him and playing on the likely imminent withdrawal of British troops leaving the Italian column at the mercy of the Patriots. By 21 May, having referred the matter to higher authority in Gondar which had left the decision to him, Maraventano indicated an intention to surrender with the formal honours taking place on 23 May. Wingate accepted the surrender of 1,100 Italian and 5,000 colonial troops, 2,000 women and children and 1,000 mule men and camp followers. By this time his force contained only 36 regular soldiers to make the formal guard of honour at the surrender, the rest of his force being patriots.^[38]

Northern front

On 12 January, Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, sent his elite Savoy Grenadiers Division to defend Keren. The Italian force at Keren soon included 3 colonial brigades and the Savoy Grenadiers. The Italians at Keren also included battalions of elite mountain troops (''Alpini'') and highly-mobile infantry (''Bersaglieri'').

Northern front: Allied advances in 1941

Lieutenant-General Platt's attack from the Sudan to take Eritrea could only begin once re-inforcements arrived from Egypt, in the meantime he continued to conduct harrying raids on Italian positions. The arrival of an Australian division in Egypt allowed General Wavell to release the Indian 4th Infantry Division from Operation Compass in the Western Desert.
The arrival of the Indian 4th Infantry Division, together with intelligence concerning the Italian plans, greatly aided Platt's plans. The main British attack on Eritrea, originally scheduled to start on February 8 with an attack against the railway junction at Kassala, was brought forward to January 18.^[28] However, the aggressive skirmishing in the previous month had prompted the Italians to withdraw from Kassala and Tessenei on 17 January to concentrate in the Keru - Biscia - Aicota triangle where the mountains began.^[40]

''Platt's forces advance into Eritrea''

On January 19, 1941, Lieutenant-General Platt's two divisions, the Indian 4th Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse and the Indian 5th Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General Lewis Heath, entered Kassala making for the heavily fortified town of Agordat to the east. On that first day, as the British and Commonwealth troops passed through Kassala, the Italians were already dug in among the jagged foothills of the Eritrean Plateau on the approaches to Agordat.
The troops of Major-General Beresford-Peirse cut off the Italian 41st Colonial Brigade while the Italians were still on the lowlands. 700 men and the brigade's commander were captured before they made it to the defensive positions in the jagged foothills. ^[4]
As the Indian divisions crossed the Eritrean border in the west, ''Briggs Force'', operating independently from the main force and under Platt's direct command, advanced eastwards from the Sudan and entered Eritrea from the north through the border town of Karora. ''Briggs Force'' was four battalions under Brigadier Harold Rawdon Briggs — two battalions from Briggs's own Indian 7th Infantry Brigade (from the Indian 4th Infantry Division), together with two battalions from the French "Brigade of the East" (''Brigade d'Orient'') — one Senegalese colonial battalion and one Free French battalion.
After capturing Italian positions near Karora, ''Briggs Force'' fought its way to the northern defences of Keren and linked up with the main force in March.

''Agordat''

Advancing east from Kassala towards Agordat, the Indian 4th Infantry Division took the northern road via Keru and the Indian 5th Infantry Division took the southern road via Barentu. Within nine days, the forces of Beresford-Peirse and Heath had advanced 100 miles (160 kilometres) and broken through the Italian positions in the foothills to capture Agordat on February 1. On 21 January, during the advance of the 5th Indian Division, Brigadier William "Bill" Slim was wounded by aerial strafing. Slim's command of Indian 10th Infantry Brigade was assumed on a temporary basis by Lieutenant-Colonel Bernard Fletcher, commander of the brigade's 2nd Highland Light Infantry battalion, until March when Brigadier Thomas "Pete" Rees took over.^[42]
On 31 January, the Italian garrison at Metemma in northern Ethiopia, having been under increasing pressure for three weeks and realising that Platt's main thrust would not be coming from the Gallabat direction withdrew towards Gondar. This withdrawal allowed the Indian 9th Infantry Brigade of the Indian 5th Infantry Division to occupy Metemma. Brigadier Mosley Mayne, 9th Brigade's commander, sent units along the road towards Wahni to harry the retreating Italian forces fighting lively engagements 20 miles and 45 miles east of Metemma. Progress on the road was difficult because of the thickly laid minefields and it was during this period that 2nd Lieutenant Premindra Singh Bhagat of the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners won the first Victoria Cross for the British Indian Army in World War II for a "...continuous feat of sheer cold courage" clearing 15 minefields and 55 miles of roads in 48 hours of unbroken effort.^[43]
By 31 January, Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, reported that the Italian military forces in East Africa were down to 67 operational aircraft with limited fuel.

''Keren''

Main articles: Battle of Keren

Battle of Keren battlefield

The key action on the northern front then took place at Keren in Eritrea.^[44]While General Frusci was in overall command of the Italian forces in Eritrea, the Italians at Keren were commanded by General Nicolangelo Carminareo. Keren is 60 miles further east of Agordat towards the Red Sea coast. ^[45] On 5 February, the Battle of Keren began. The battle started with assaults by elements of Indian 4th Infantry Division (''Gazelle Force'' and Indian 11th Brigade) on the Italian positions in the mountains leading to Keren. Initially the resolute Italian defenders prevailed with heavy casualties on both sides. Further heavy attacks took place over the next ten days. But the Italians held and there was no break through.
Platt decided to regroup and concentrate his forces before attacking again. Planning for a set-piece battle he disbanded ''Gazelle Force'' (with Messervy taking over Indian 9th Brigade) and brought Indian 5th Infantry Division (which had been mopping up at Agordat) to the front. On 1 March, his command was expanded by the arrival ''Briggs Force'' from the north. Although it lacked the artillery for a major offensive, ''Briggs Force'' drew off a significant part of the Keren garrison. This aided Platt's main offensive which was being launched from the south west. ''Briggs Force'' also posed a threat to Massawa to the east. This threat obliged the Italians to maintain a reserve on the coast. ^[46]
On 14 March, by the time the next assault on Keren commenced, Platt's force of about 13,000 men faced a re-inforced Italian defense of about 23,000 men. Once again, both sides fought with determination and both sides suffered heavy losses. It took until 27 March for Keren to fall. ^[47]In the account of the battle written in ''Eastern Epic'', an official history of the British Indian Army in World War II, Compton Mackenzie wrote:

Keren was as hard a soldiers' battle as was ever fought, and let it be said that nowhere in the war did the Germans fight more stubbornly than those [Italian] Savoia battalions, Alpini, Bersaglieri and Grenadiers. In the [first] five days' fight the Italians suffered nearly 5,000 casualties - 1,135 of them killed. Lorenzini, the gallant young Italian general, had his head blown off by one of the British guns. He had been a great leader of Eritrean troops^[48]

The unfortunate licence of wartime propaganda allowed the British Press to represent the Italians almost as comic warriors; but except for the German parachute division in Italy and the Japanese in Burma no enemy with whom the British and Indian troops were matched put up a finer fight than those Savoia battalions at Keren. Moreover, the Colonial troops, until they cracked at the very end, fought with valour and resolution, and their staunchness was a testimony to the excellence of the Italian administration and military training in Eritrea.^[49]

January 22, 1941. Ethiopians transporting supplies by camel through the bush. (Photographer: FE Palmer, No 1 Army Film & Photographic Unit, (UK).)

Casualties at Keren were relatively high for both sides. The British and Commonwealth forces had more than 4,000 men killed, wounded or missing^[50]. The Italians suffered about 3,000 men killedand several thousand men wounded, injured, or sick. Much of the Italian garrison was captured.
Keren was decisive in terms of the strategic objectives of the Allied forces (to the extent that when Wavell was created an earl he chose as his second title the viscounty of Keren and of Winchester). While hard fighting lay ahead before the campaign would come to an end, the fall of Keren broke the resistance of the Italian forces and led to the almost immediate capture of Massawa on the coast. This made it possible to safely use the Red Sea for ships bringing munitions and supplies to the North African theater.

''Asmara''

After Keren fell, Indian 5th Infantry Division set off eastwards in pursuit of the retreating Italians and towards the Eritrean capital of Asmara, some 50 miles away. They left the Indian 4th Infantry Division behind to mop up in Keren. After mopping up, the Indian 4th Infantry Division returned to Egypt (leaving behind for a little longer the formations it had detached to ''Briggs Force'').
The retreating Italians fought minor skirmishes but mounted no major stand. On 1 April, Asmara was declared an open town. Three days later, after resupply along the lengthening road to the Kassala railway junction on the Sudanese border, 10th Infantry Brigade of Indian 5th Infantry Division set off east again towards Massawa. Massawa was some 50 miles away, 7000 feet lower, and on the coast. On 10th Brigade's left flank was ''Briggs Force'' which had advanced cross-country from Keren and were approaching Massawa from the north along the coast.

''Massawa''

Rear Admiral Mario Bonetti, commander of the Italian Red Sea Flotilla and the commander of the garrison at Massawa, had been ordered by Mussolini to defend the town to the last man^[51]. The Italians had 10,000 troops and 100 tanks and armoured cars to defend Massawa. About 1,000 of the defenders at Massawa were veterans from Keren and another bloody battle seemed likely. However, after some initial strong opposition by the Italians, resistance collapsed and Massawa was captured on 8 April, mainly because of Italian lack of fuel, ammunitions and food.
On 11 April, Major-General Heath was promoted to command the Indian III Corps in the Far East. Command of the Indian 5th Infantry Division was assumed by Mosley Mayne who had previously commanded the division's 9th Brigade. Bernard Fletcher, who had for two months until March had temporary command of 10th Brigade, was promoted and given command of the 9th Brigade.^[52]
Before Massawa fell, Bonnetti had ordered the remaining six Italian destroyers and the remaining motor torpedo boat (the other four boats were no longer operational) to put to sea from Massawa on a "do or die" mission. Four destroyers had been ordered to attack the fuel tanks at Port Sudan. Two of these destroyers, "Daniele Manin" and "Nazario Sauro," were sunk by shore-based Swordfish airplanes (of the Fleet Air Arm} from the carrier "Eagle". The other two destroyers that were headed to Port Sudan ran aground near Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The remaining two destroyers had been ordered to attack Suez, but were sunk prior to reaching their objective. Before being scuttled by its crew, the Italian motor torpedo boat (MTB) "MAS-213" torpedoed and damaged the cruiser "Capetown." The cruiser was escorting a convoy off Massawa.
The remaining Italian submarines at Massawa were not part of Bonnetti's "do or die" mission. They escaped destruction by sailing south. After making it past the Cape of Good Hope, they turned north and sailed to Bordeaux, France, via the west coast of Africa.
The remaining Italian port facilities at Assab, within easy striking distance of British aircraft based in Aden, held out for several weeks after the fall of Massawa. On 13 June, two days after the fall of Assab, the British auxiliary cruiser "Parvati" became the last naval casualty of the campaign when it struck a magnetic mine.

Seaborne assault in Somaliland

On 16 March 1941, two Sikh battalions of the Indian Army (which had been part of the defending force successfully evacuated in August 1940), staging from Aden, made the first successful Allied landing on an enemy-held beach in World War II. The 2nd battalion 3rd Punjab Regiment and the 3rd battalion 15th Punjab Regiment re-captured British Somaliland from its Italian occupiers.
When the Sikhs landed, an Italian colonel (suffering from malaria together with half of his troops^[53]) waited with the 60 men who constituted the Berbera garrison. The garrison had been low on food and water for weeks. The Italians stood in formation on the beach and waited to surrender to the arriving British force. The British promptly "secured" Berbera. A British officer present at the Italian surrender later wrote: "War can be very embarrassing." ^[54]
On 20 March, Hargeisa was captured. The British and Commonwealth forces in British Somaliland spent the next months clearing the colony of the last remnants of its former invaders. The Italians, under the orders of colonel Di Marco, started a guerrilla war in the area that lasted until summer 1942.
From British Somaliland, British and Commonwealth forces advanced westward into eastern Ethiopia. In late March, they linked up with advancing forces from the Southern Front around Harar and Diredawa in Ethiopia. The link-up meant that the forces of the Southern Front could no be re-supplied more efficiently through the port of Berbera.
The Somaliland Camel Corps was re-founded in mid-April and re-acquired its job of rounding up local bandits.

Southern front

Cunningham's forces on the southern front included the South African 1st Division, the 11th African Division, and the 12th African Division (the latter divisions were comprised of East African, South African, Nigerian, and Ghanaian troops under British or South African officers). The South African division was led by Major-General George Brink. The 11th African Division was commanded by Major-General H. E. de R. Wetherall. The 12th African Division was commanded by Major-General Alfred Godwin-Austen.
In January 1941, Cunningham decided to launch his first attacks directly across the Kenyan border and directly into southern Ethiopia. He hoped that this action would cause Ethiopians in southern Ethiopia to rise up in rebellion against the Italians. Cunningham sent the South African 1st Division and a single East African brigade into the Galla-Sidamo Province. From 16 January to 18 January 1941, the South Africans captured El Yibo and on 19 January, an advance force of South Africans captured Jumbo.^[55] From 24 January to 25 January, the South Africans fought on the Turbi Road. Cunningham's hopes that the Ethiopians would rise up were not realized. ^[4]
Cunningham kept the South Africans in southern Ethiopia until the attack ground to a halt in mid-February. From 1 February, the South Africans captured Gorai and El Gumu. On 2 February, the South Africans captured Hobok. From 8 February to 9 February, the South Africans captured Banno. On 15 February, the South Africans fought on the Yavello Road. From 15 February to 18 February, the South Africans captured Mega in Ethiopia. Moyale, in Kenya, was re-captured on 18 February.
On 24 January, Cunningham's main force, including the 11th African Division and the 12th African Division, invaded Italian Somaliland from Kenya. Earlier in January, the Italians had already decided that the plains of Italian Somalia could not be defended. Most of the Italian forces were already being withdrawn to the better defensive terrain of the mountains of Ethiopia. Cunningham encountered few Italians east of the Juba River.
On 14 February, the first objective Kismayu, was captured. Kismayu is located where the Juba River empties into the Indian Ocean.

''Mogadishu''

On 25 February 1941, a motorized Nigerian Brigade of the 11th African Division advanced up the coast and occupied Mogadishu, the capital of Italian Somaliland. Meanwhile, the 12th African Division pushed up the Juba River in Italian Somaliland towards the Ethiopian border town of Dolo.^[57]
On 1 March, the 11th African Division began a fighting pursuit of the retreating Italian forces north from Mogadishu. The division pursued the Italians towards the Ogaden Plateau. By 17 March, the 11th African Division completed a seventeen day dash along the Italian built "Imperial Road" (''Strada Imperiale'') from Mogadishu to Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia,
By early March Cunningham's forces had captured most of Italian Somaliland and were advancing through Ethiopia towards the ultimate objective, Addis Ababa. On 26 March, Harar was captured.^[58] On 29 March, Diredawa fell. During this time there was a link-up with the forces advancing from British Somaliland and Cunningham's supply route became much improved.

''The liberation of Addis Ababa''

On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was liberated by Cunningham's force. In 53 days, Cunningham had advanced 1,725 miles from Kenya to reach the Ethiopian capital.
Emperor Haile Selassie made a formal entry to the city on 5 May, five years after being forced to flee when the Italians captured his capital on 5 May 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Since then, 5 May has been observed in Ethiopia as Liberation Day, a national holiday.
On 13 April.^[59] Cunningham sent a force under Brigadier Dan Pienaar comprising 1st South African Brigade and Campbell's Scouts (Ethiopian irregulars led by a British officer) to continue the northward advance and link up with Platt's forces advancing south.
On April 20, after a rough battle, Pienaar's force captured Dessie on the main road north from Addis Ababa to Asmara. Pienaar was some 200 miles south of Platt's forces gathering at Amba Alagi. ^[60]

Amba Alagi

Wavell's strategic priority was for Platt to push southwards from the Sudan to Addis Ababa and for him to meet up with Cunningham pushing northwards from Kenya. A major obstacle for Platt was located at Amba Alagi, located between Asmara and Addis Ababa. Amba Alagi is a 12,000 foot high mountain.
The Italians decided to defend the area around Amba Alagi in force. They drove galleries into the solid rock to protect their troops and to hold ample ammunition and stores. In this mountain fortress, the defenders, under command of Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, thought themselves to be impregnable. ^[61]
Platt gave newly-promoted Major-General Mosley Mayne and the Indian 5th Infantry Division the task of taking Amba Alagi. Mayne was only able to deploy a single expanded brigade, the Indian 29th Infantry Brigade, for this action. His attacking force was therefore inferior in numbers to the Italian defending force. Mayne's limited deployment was due to the demands on the British for internal security and for protecting their lines of communication. The supply route to Amba Alagi extended nearly 250 miles south of Asmara and some 400 miles from the main rail head at Kassala.
On 3 May 1941, Mayne sent in a feint attack from the east while, in the early hours of 4 May, the main attack was made from the northwest over the hills. The hills were fiercely defended by the Italians. On 11 May, Pienaar's brigade group arrived from the south and was put under Mayne's command. By 14 May Amba Alagi was surrounded.^[62] With the arrival of Pienaar, the 7000 Italian troops of
Amedeo, Duke of Aosta were directly attacked by 9000 British troops and more than 20000 Ethiopian irregulars.
A final assault was planned for 15 May, but a fortuitous artillery shell hit an Italian fuel dump and ruptured a vessel containing oil. This caused oil to flow into the remaining drinking water of the Italian defenders. The lack of drinkable water then forced the Italians to surrender. ^[63]
On 18 May, Amedeo, Duke of Aosta surrendered his embattled forces at Amba Alagi and received full military honors. While the Duke of Aosta faced defeat in East Africa, his brother, the Duke of Spoleto was being made the King of Croatia after the succesful invasion of Yugoslavia..^[64]
The Duke of Aosta had endured the last months of fighting while suffering a severe attack of malaria (and died of TBC and malaria a few months later)^[65].
The campaign in Italian East Africa was all but over.

Last stand at Gondar

General Nasi and his last Italian troops receive military honors at Gondar (November 1941)

In spite of the Duke of Aosta's surrender at Amba Alagi on 18 May 1941, some Italian forces continued to hold out. Gondar, Gimma, and Assab remained under Italian control. But, on 11 June, Assab fell to British and Commonwealth forces advancing from Massawa.
A force under General Guglielmo Nasi, the acting Governor of Amhara, continued to resist at Gondar in northwest Ethiopia. Gondar was the capital of Begemder Province and is located about 120 miles west of Amba Alagi.
Another Italian force under General Pietro Gazzera, the Governor of Galla-Sidama and the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa, continued to resist at Jimma in southwest Ethiopia. Gazzera replaced Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, as Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa.
After capturing Amba Alagi, the commanders of the two major fronts were called on once again by Wavell. The commander of the northern front, William Platt, was tasked with neutralizing the forces under General Nasi in Gondar. The commander of the southern front, Alan Cunningham, was to do the same to General Gazzera's force in Jimma.
General Gazzera surrendered his force first. Even before Cunningham moved against him, Gazzera was faced with a growing irregular force of Ethiopian patriots (or ''Arbegnoch''). Jimma fell on 21 June 1941. Starting with about 40,000 men, Gazzera attempted a mobile defense. Attempting to move such a large force in hostile territory caused him to quickly lose large numbers of his men all along his route. In July, General Gazzera and his last 7,000 men surrendered when they were cut off by Belgian Major-General Auguste-Éduard Gilliaert, the commander of the Free Belgian Forces in East Africa.
After the fall of Amba Alagi, General Nasi held out in Gondar for almost seven months. After General Gazzera surrendered, he became the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa. But, like Gazzera, Nasi faced not just the conventional forces of Platt. He faced an ever increasing force of Ethiopian patriots.
While the Italian Royal Air Force (''Regia Aeronautica'') in East Africa had been worn down quickly by a lop-sided war of attrition, the Italian pilots held on to the bitter end. On 24 October 1941, the last Italian aircraft of the campaign was shot down.Andrew Mollo, "The Armed Forces of World War II'', p. 91
On 27 November 1941 General Nasi surrendered Gondar, receiving full military honors, to a combined force of British and Commonwealth troops and a force of Ethiopians.

Italian guerrilla

Between November 1941 and September 1943, scattered Italian units (totalling an estimated 7,000 men)^[66] fought a guerrilla war from the deserts of Eritrea and Somalia to the forests and mountains of Ethiopia. They supposedly did so in the hope of holding out until the Germans and Italians in Egypt (or even possibly the Japanese in India) intervened.

Italian Propaganda Poster (1942): ''We will return!'' (to the Italian African colonies)

Amedeo Guillet [4] was one of the Italian officers who fought with the Italian guerrillas in Ethiopia. Other Italian officers were Captain Francesco De Martini in Eritrea, Colonel Calderari in western Ethiopia/Somalia, Colonel Di Marco in Ogaden/British Somaliland, "blackshirt centurion" De Varda in Somalia/Ethiopia and Major Lucchetti in Ethiopia.
The Italian guerrilla was even waged by civilians, like Dr. Rosa Dainelli, a woman who in August 1942 successfully sabotaged the main British ammunition dump in Addis Ababa.
Hostilities in East Africa officially ceased in September 9, 1943 when the Italian government signed an Armistice with the Allies, but even then some Italian soldiers continued their guerrilla war until October 1943, being unaware of the Italian armistice.

Aftermath

In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British, under pressure from the American administration, signed an agreement with Emperor Haile Selassie I acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. He reigned over Ethiopia until 1974.
With the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden coastlines cleared of Axis forces, American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was able to declare that these areas were no longer combat zones. As a result, United States ships were able to proceed to Suez. This helped to relieve the enormous strain on the shipping resources of the United Kingdom. ^[4]
The Italian colony of Eritrea was placed under British military administration for the remainder of World War II. In 1950, Eritrea was made part of Ethiopia. The unification of Eritrea and Ethiopia was not acceptable to the Eritreans and led to the Eritrean War of Independence. The unification ended in the early 1990s when Eritrea first became independent in 1991 and then was recognized as being independent in 1993.
Italian Somaliland was also placed under British military administration for the remainder of the war. In 1948, it was decided that the Ogaden border region would be awarded to Ethiopia. In 1949, the United Nations brought the Italians back to administer Somalia for ten years. In 1959, Somalia became independent.

Victoria Cross recipients

The following is a list of recipients of the Victoria Cross (VC) during this campaign:

★ Eric Charles Twelves Wilson (Somaliland Camel Corps) - Received during the Italian invasion of British Somaliland

★ Premindra Singh Bhagat - Received during fighting on the Northern Front

★ Richhpal Ram - Received during fighting on the Northern Front

★ Nigel Gray Leakey (cousin of Louis Leakey and sergeant in the 1/6 battalion King's African Rifles) - Received during fighting on the Southern Front

Sources

★ Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945, , Franco, Antonicelli, Mondadori ed., ,

★ Rape of Ethiopia, 1936, , A.J., Barker, Ballantine Books, ,

★ The Italian Invasion of British Somaliland 1st - 18th August 1940, , Lt.-Col. JEB, Barton, , ,

★ Ball of fire - The Fifth Indian Division in the Second World War, , Antony, Brett-James, Gale & Polden, ,

★ La resistenza sconosciuta in Africa Orientale, , Enrico, Cernuschi, Rivista Storica, ,

★ Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero, , Angelo, Del Boca, Laterza, ,

★ Oxford Companion to World War II, , John, Keegan, Oxford University Press, USA, 2005,

★ Eastern Epic, , Compton, MacKenzie, Chatto & Windus, London, 1951, ISBN?

★ Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941, , Anthony, Mockler, Random House, New York, 1984, ISBN 0-394-54222-3.

★ The armed forces of World War II : uniforms, insignia, and organization, , Andrew, Mollo, Crown Publishers, ,

★ The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II, , Douglas, Porch, Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 2004,

★ History of the Second World War: The Mediterranean and the Middle East Volume 1, , Major-General I.S.O., Playfair, HMSO, London, 1954, ISBN? This is the official history.

★ Wingate and the Chindits, , David, Rooney, Cassell & Co, 1994,

★ ''Italian invasion of British Somaliland'', UK Public Records Office Ref WO106/2336.

★ ''War Diary HQ Somaliforce Jul–Aug 1940'', UK Public Records Office file WO169/2870. This file contains many reports, photographs of defensive positions and maps.

★ ''Revised Notes on the Italian Army (with amendments 1–3 incorporated)'', The War Office.

References

1. Antonicelli, Franco. ''Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945 (in Italian)'' Mondadori Ed. Torino 1961
2. Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 155
3. Keegan, John, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'', p. 245
4. Keegan, John, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'', p. 247
5. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 21 & 30
6. Andrew Mollo, "The Armed Forces of World War II'', pp. 138-139
7. David Rooney, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', p. 52
8. Rooney, David, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', p. 53
9. Rooney, David, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', p. 49
10. Rooney, David, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', pp. 53, 54
11. Rooney, David, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', pp. 55-56
12. Del Boca, ''Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero''
13. Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 135
14. Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 135
15. Roll Out the Barrel, , , , Time Magazine,
16. Cernuschi, Enrico. ''La resistenza sconosciuta in Africa Orientale''
17. Mockler, ''Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941'', p. 241.
18. Story of a Siege, , , , Time Magazine,
19. War Without Water, , , , Time Magazine,
20. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 23
21. Mockler, ''Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941'', pp. 243-45.
22. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 22
23. Mockler, ''Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941'', pp. 245-49.
24. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 23
25. Mockler, ''Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941'', p. 251.
26. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 33
27. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', pp. 33-34
28. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 43
29. Compton, Mackenzie,''Eastern Epic'', p. 32
30. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 42
31. Keegan, John, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'', p. 247
32. Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 156
33. David Rooney, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', p. 58
34. David Rooney, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', p. 62
35. David Rooney, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', p. 63
36. David Rooney, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', p. 64
37. Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 156
38. David Rooney, ''Wingate and the Chindits'', pp. 70-71
39. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 43
40. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 44
41. Keegan, John, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'', p. 247
42. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', pp. 44-49
43. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', pp. 50-51
44. Last Act in East Africa, , , , Time Magazine,
45. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', pp. 52-64
46. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 56
47. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', pp. 64-70
48. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p.60
49. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 64
50. Brett-James, Anthony, ''Ball of fire - The Fifth Indian Division in the Second World War'', Chp. 4
51. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 66
52. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', pp. 47, 65-66
53. Antonicelli,Franco ''Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945''
54. Mockler, ''Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941'', pp. 365-66.
55. Jumbo on the Juba, , , , Time Magazine,
56. Keegan, John, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'', p. 247
57. Exchange of Somalilands, , , , Time Magazine,
58. Key Towns, , , , Time Magazine,
59. Wavell's Despatches, , , , Supplement to the London Gazette,
60. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p. 68
61. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', p.67
62. Compton Mackenzie, ''Eastern Epic'', pp. 69-70
63. Compton Mackenzie,'' Eastern Epic'', p. 70
64. Long Enough for Aosta, , , , Time Magazine,
65. Antonicelli, Franco.''Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945 (in Italian)''. Mondadori ed. Torino,1961
66. ''Enrico Cernuschi. La resistenza sconosciuta in Africa Orientale'' Rivista Storica, dicembre 1994
67. Keegan, John, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'', p. 247

External links

★ Italian East African Armed Forces, 10 June 1940

★ 1940 Colonial Brigade, 10 June 1940 Italian colonial Brigades

★ Italian East Africa Air Command, 10 June 1940

★ Somalihome Online — The Invasion of British Somaliland

★ BBC — WW2 People's War: East African Campaign

★ Stone & Stone: The Invasion of British Somaliland

★ Battlefront

★ Regia Marina - The Italian Royal Navy

★ Comando Supremo Italy at War — The Italian War Effort 1940-1945

★ The Best of Enemies - 1962 film about the East African Campaign
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