العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
EspañolDIGESTION
:''For the industrial process see anaerobic digestion''
'Digestion' is the process of metabolism whereby a biological entity processes a substance in order to chemically and mechanically convert the substance for the body to use.
Overview
Digestion occurs at the multicellular, cellular, and sub-cellular levels, usually in animals. This process takes place in the digestive system, gastrointestinal tract, or alimentary canal.
Digestion is usually divided into mechanical manipulation and chemical action. In most vertebrates, digestion is a multi-stage process in the digestive system, following ingestion of the raw materials, most often other organisms. The process of ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical manipulation. Digestion is separated into four separate processes:
# Ingestion: placing food into the mouth,
# Mechanical digestion & chemical digestion: mastication, the use of teeth to tear and crush food, and churning of the stomach. Addition of chemicals (acid, bile, enzymes, and water) to break down complex molecules into simple structures,
# Absorption: movement of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion,
# Egestion: Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system, deglutition and peristalsis.
Human digestion process
Phases of human digestion
★ Cephalic Phase - This phase occurs before food enters the stomach. Sight and thought stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimulus is sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve.
★ Gastric Phase - This phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distention of the stomach and alkaline pH (raised pH). Distention activates long and myentric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine (ACh). This in turn stimulates the release of more gastric juices. Chemical stimulation is triggered by alkaline conditions and partially digested food. This triggers G cells to release gastrin. Gastrin activated HCl secreting cells. (
★ notes proteins act as a buffer tying up Hydrogen ions. This causes the normal acidic conditions in the stomach to become more alkaline. HCl release is triggered by 3 chemicals acetylecholine (ACh), gastrin and histamine.
★ Intestinal Phase - This phase has 2 parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially-digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activates sympathetic fibers (causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering), and inhibits local reflexes. (
★ Notes enterogasterons secretin, CCK and VIP inhibit gastric secretions).
Oral cavity
In humans, digestion begins in the oral cavity where food is chewed (mastication) with the teeth. Saliva is secreted in large amounts (1-1.5 liter/day) by three pairs of exocrine salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and submaxillary) in the oral cavity, and is mixed with the chewed food by the tongue. The saliva serves to clean the oral cavity and moisten the food, and contains digestive enzymes such as salivary amylase, which aids in the chemical breakdown (hydrolysis) of starch (polysaccharide) into maltose (a disaccharide). It also contains mucin, a glycoprotein which helps in softening the food. The softened food is called bolus.
Swallowing (deglutition) transports the chewed food into the esophagus, passing through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx. The mechanism for swallowing is coordinated by the swallowing center in the medulla oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as the bolus of food is pushed to the back of the mouth.
Esophagus
The esophagus, a narrow, muscular tube about 20 centimeters (8 inches) long, starts at the pharynx and ends at the cardiac orifice of the stomach. It passes through the thorax (chest) and the diaphragm to join the stomach. The wall of the esophagus is made up of two layers of muscles. These muscles are present along the gut from the esophagus to the rectum. The two layers of muscles are the longitudinal muscles on the outside of the gut, and the circular muscles on the inside of the gut. Both sets of muscles produce long, slow contractions. The chewed food is pushed down by this movement known as peristalsis, which is a rapid, involuntary wave-like contraction of smooth muscle tissue, characteristic of the digestive system. Peristalsis enables food to be mixed with the digestive juices, and moves the food along the gut. The circular muscles constrict the lumen whereas the longitudinal muscles shorten the lumen. The circular muscles and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic muscles. This means that when one set of muscles contracts, the other set relaxes. When the circular muscles contract, the longitudinal muscles relax. As a result, the wall of the gut constricts, that is, the gut becomes narrower and longer. The food is squeezed or pushed forward. When the longitudinal muscles contract, the circular muscles relax. The gut dilates, that is, it becomes wider and shorter. This widens the lumen for the food to enter. Because it takes only seconds for food to pass through, the esophagus carries little digestive function.
Stomach
The food enters the stomach upon passage through the cardiac orifice, also known as the esophageal sphincter. In the stomach, food is further broken apart through a process of heuristic churning and is thoroughly mixed with a digestive fluid, composed chiefly of hydrochloric acid, and other digestive enzymes to further denature proteins.
The parietal cells of the stomach also secrete a compound, intrinsic factor, which is essential in the absorption of vitamin B-12. As the acidic level changes in the small intestines, more enzymes are activated to split apart the molecular structure of the various nutrients so they may be absorbed into the circulatory or lymphatic systems. Absorption is when smaller molecules, such as glucose or alcohol, pass through the membrane of the stomach directly into the blood stream.
Small intestine
After being processed in the stomach, food is passed to the small intestine via the pyloric sphincter. This is where most of the digestive process occurs as chyme enters the first 10 inches (25 cm) of the small intestine, the duodenum. Here it is further mixed with three different liquids:
# bile, which helps aid in fat digestion, otherwise known as emulsification. (Bile also contains pigments that are by-products of red blood cell destruction in the liver; these bile pigments are eliminated from the body with the feces.)
#pancreatic juice and enzymes, made by the pancreas.
#intestinal enzymes of the alkaline mucosal membranes. The enzymes include: maltase, lactase and sucrase, to process sugars. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are other enzymes added in the small intestine.
Most nutrient absorption takes place in the small intestine.
The nutrients pass through the small intestine's wall, which contains small, finger-like structures called villi. The blood, which has absorbed nutrients, is carried away from the small intestine via the hepatic portal vein and goes to the liver for filtering, removal of toxins, and nutrient processing. The primary activity here is regulation of blood glucose levels through a process of temporary storage of excess glucose that is converted in the liver to glycogen in direct response to the hormone insulin. Between meals, when blood glucose levels begin to drop, the glycogen is converted back to glucose in response to the hormone glucagon.
Large intestine
After going through the small intestine, the food then goes to the large intestine. The large intestine has three parts: the cecum (or pouch that forms the T-junction with the small intestine), the colon, and the rectum. In the large intestine, water is reabsorbed, and the foods that cannot go through the villi, such as dietary fiber, can be stored in large intestine. Fiber helps to keep the food moving through the G.I. tract. The food that cannot be broken down is called feces. Feces are stored in the rectum until they are expelled through the anus.
Carbohydrate digestion
Carbohydrates are formed in growing plants and are found in grains, leafy vegetables, and other edible plant foods. The molecular structure of these plants is complex, or a polysaccharide; poly is a prefix meaning many. Plants form carbohydrate chains during growth by trapping carbon from the atmosphere, initially carbon dioxide (CO2).
Carbon is stored within the plant along with water (H2O) to form a complex starch containing a combination of carbon-hydrogen-oxygen in a fixed ratio of 1:2:1 respectively.
Plants with a high sugar content and table sugar represent a less complex structure and are called disaccharides, or two sugar molecules bonded. Once digestion of either of these forms of carbohydrates are complete, the result is a single sugar structure, a monosaccharide. These monosaccharides can be absorbed into the blood and used by individual cells to produce the energy compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The digestive system starts the process of breaking down polysaccharides in the mouth through the introduction of amylase, a digestive enzyme in saliva. The high acid content of the stomach inhibits the enzyme activity, so carbohydrate digestion is suspended in the stomach. Upon emptying into the small intestines, potential hydrogen (pH) changes dramatically from a strong acid to an alkaline content. The pancreas secretes bicarbonate to neutralize the acid from the stomach, and the mucus secreted in the tissue lining the intestines is alkaline which promotes digestive enzyme activity. Amylase is present in the small intestines and works with other enzymes to complete the breakdown of carbohydrate into a monosaccharide which is absorbed into the surrounding capillaries of the villi.
Nutrients in the blood are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal circuit, or loop, where final carbohydrate digestion is accomplished in the liver. The liver accomplishes carbohydrate digestion in response to the hormones insulin and glucagon. As blood glucose levels increase following digestion of a meal, the pancreas secretes insulin causing the liver to transform glucose to glycogen, which is stored in the liver, adipose tissue, and in muscle cells, preventing hyperglycemia. A few hours following a meal, blood glucose will drop due to muscle activity, and the pancreas will now secrete glucagon which causes glycogen to be converted into glucose to prevent hypoglycemia.
Note: In the discussion of digestion of carbohydrates; nouns ending in the suffix -ose usually indicate a sugar, such as lactose. Nouns ending in the suffix -ase indicates the enzyme that will break down the sugar, such as lactase. For example: lactose, sugar found naturally in milk, is digested by lactase resulting in a less complex molecule, a monosaccharide.
Fat digestion
The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones which stimulate the release of lipase from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. The lipase (activated by acid) breaks down the fat into monoglycerides and fatty acids. The bile emulsifies the fatty acids so they may be easily absorbed.
Short- and medium-length fatty acids are absorbed directly into the blood via intestine capillaries and travel through the portal vein just as other absorbed nutrients do. However, long-chain fatty acids are too large to be directly released into the tiny intestine capillaries. Instead they are absorbed into the fatty walls of the intestine villi and then reassembled again into triglycerides. The triglycerides are then coated with cholesterol and protein (protein coat) into a compound called a chylomicron.
Within the villi, the chylomicron enters a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal, which merges into larger lymphatic vessels. It is transported via the lymphatic system and the thoracic duct up to a location near the heart (where the arteries and veins are larger). The thoracic duct empties the chylomicrons into the bloodstream via the left subclavian vein. At this point the chylomicrons can transport the triglycerides to where they are needed.
Digestive hormones
There are at least four hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system:
★ Gastrin - is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH .
★ Secretin - is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver. This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
★ Cholecystokinin (CCK) - is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
★ Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Also functions is to induce insulin secretion
Significance of pH in digestion
Digestion is a complex process which is controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will not function in a low-pH environment like the stomach. Low pH (below 5) indicates a strong acid, while a high pH (above 8) indicates a strong base; the concentration of the acid or base, however, does also play a role.
pH in the stomach is very acidic and inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates while there. The strong acid content of the stomach provides two benefits, both serving to denature proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, as well as providing non-specific immunity, retarding or eliminating various pathogens.
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralise the acidic conditions from the stomach. Also the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline, creating a pH of about 8.5, thus enabling absorption in a mild alkaline environment.
Specialized organs in non-human animals
Organisms develop specialized organs to aid in the digestion of their food, for example different types of tongues or teeth. Insects may have a crop (or the enlargement of esophagus) while birds and cockroaches may develop a gizzard (or a stomach that acts as teeth and mechanically digests food). A herbivore may have a cecum that breaks down the cellulose in plants. Ruminants, for example, bovines and sheep, have a fourth and final stomach or abomasum.
References
★ Kimball's Biology Pages, Digestion
★ Chemistry lecture
★ American Journal of Physiology, article
★ Journal article on pH in digestion
See also
★ Anaerobic digestion
★ Gastrointestinal tract
★ Nutrition
External links
★ Human Physiology - Digestion
★ NIH guide to digestive system
This article provided by Wikipedia. To edit the contents of this article, click here for original source.
psst.. try this: add to faves
