(Redirected from Death and Resurrection of Jesus)
The 'death and resurrection of Jesus' are two events in the
New Testament in which
Jesus is
crucified and resurrected three days later (, , ). The New Testament also mentions several
resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his
twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once," () before Jesus'
Ascension. These two events are essential doctrines of the
Christian faith, and are commemorated by
Christians during the liturgical times of
Passiontide and
Eastertide, particularly during
Holy Week.
Other groups, such as
Jews,
Muslims and other non-Christians, as well as some
liberal Christians, dispute whether Jesus actually rose from the dead; hence, arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious
debates and
interfaith dialogues.
[1]
Significance
As
Paul the Apostle, an early front runner of Christianity, contended, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless" ()
[2] The death and resurrection of Jesus are the most important events in
Christian Theology, as they form the point in scripture where Jesus gives his ultimate demonstration that he has power over life and death, thus he has the ability to give people
eternal life.
[3] According to the
Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"
[4] he
ascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God,"
[5] and will
return again[6] to fulfill the rest of
Messianic prophecy such as the
Resurrection of the dead, the
Last Judgment and establishment of the
Kingdom of God, see also
Messianism and
Messianic Age.
[7]
The following passage describes the significance of the Resurrection of Christ to Christians or seekers:
::
If it is preached that Christ has been raised from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? If there is no resurrection of the dead, then not even Christ has been raised. And ''if Christ has not been raised'', our preaching is useless and so is your faith. More than that, we are then found to be false witnesses about God, for we have testified about God that he raised Christ from the dead. But he did not raise him if in fact the dead are not raised. For if the dead are not raised, then Christ has not been raised either. And 'if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile; you are still in your sins.' Then 'those also who have fallen asleep in Christ are lost.' 'If only for this life we have hope in Christ, we are to be pitied more than all men.' ''But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead'', the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep ().
Most Christians accept the New Testament story as a
historical account of some kind of resurrection, which is central to their
faith. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.
[8] Some
liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,
[9] seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing
myth. Also, a group known as the
Gnostics argued against its singular importance, as they had
differing views as to how the passages should be interpreted, many believing Jesus was
never a human and so could not have died (see:
Docetism).
Almost all non-Christians do not accept the bodily resurrection of Jesus. They therefore deny the resurrection, considering it a form of myth. People can, however, still find a meaning in the text. For instance,
Carl Jung suggests that the crucifixion-resurrection story was the forceful spiritual symbol of, literally, God-as-
Yahweh becoming God-as-
Job.
[10]
Atonement
Main articles: Atonement
Some believe that the Shroud of Turin was Jesus' burial cloth and that the image imprinted into the cloth is of Jesus' face.
Jesus' death and resurrection underpin a variety of
theological interpretations as to how
salvation is granted to humanity. A common feature of all these interpretations is that they place greater emphasis on the death and resurrection than on his words.
[11]
The
Roman Catholic view is that Jesus willingly sacrificed himself as an act of perfect obedience as a
Substitutionary atonement, a sacrifice of love which pleased God.
[12]
The
Christus Victor view, which is more common among
Lutherans and
Eastern Orthodox Christians, holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and
Satan. Because of his perfection, voluntary death, and Resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through faith in Jesus.
[13]
The Catholic view off-shoot titled the ''judicial view'' was held by
Martin Luther, and a major cause of the
Reformation. It is the perspective held by most
Protestants. It emphasizes God as both lawmaker and judge. All humans have broken the rules that God has set (
sin), and all deserve to be punished. The only exception to this was Jesus, who received the ultimate punishment despite not having sinned. This is seen as an act of Jesus accepting the punishment that was meant for humans, meaning humans can be restored to a right relationship with God. The difference between the Catholic and Protestant views was a major cause of the
Reformation.
[14]
The First Man view, held by a small minority, especially
Pelagians and
Semi-Pelagians, states that Jesus was a person just like the rest of humanity, but due to his remarkable faith, purity, sinlessness, and perfection, he ''earned'' eternal life, and was resurrected because Death could not hold him.
Records
Early Creeds
The earliest records of the death and resurrection of Jesus are early Christian creeds and creedal hymns, which were included in several of the
New Testament texts. Scholars suppose that some of these creeds date to within a few years of Jesus' death, and were developed within the Christian community in Jerusalem.
[15] Though embedded within the texts of the New Testament, these creeds are a distinct source for early Christianity.
★ reads: "For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures." This contains a Christian creed of pre-Pauline origin.
[16] The antiquity of the creed has been located by many biblical scholars to less than a decade after Jesus' death, originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community.
[17] Concerning this creed, Campenhausen wrote, "This account meets all the demands of historical reliability that could possibly be made of such a text,"
[18] whilst A. M. Hunter said, "The passage therefore preserves uniquely early and verifiable testimony. It meets every reasonable demand of historical reliability."
[19]
★ : "...concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh and designated the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord;"
[20]
★ : "Remember Jesus Christ, raised from the dead, this is my Gospel."
[21]
Gospel narratives
The earliest detailed historical narrative accounts of the death and resurrection of Jesus are contained in the four canonical
Gospels:
Matthew ,
Mark ,
Luke ,
John . There are other, more laconic references in the New Testament epistles.
According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon at
Calvary, which was also called Golgotha, after being sentenced to be crucified by
Pontius Pilate for claiming to be king of the Jews. The wealthy Judean
Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the
Sanhedrin according to Mark and Luke, received Pilate's permission to take possession of Jesus' body, placing it in a tomb.
[22] According to John, Joseph was aided by
Nicodemus, who joined him to help bury Jesus, and who appears in other parts of John's gospel (). The three
Synoptic Gospels tell of the darkening of the sky from twelve until three that afternoon; Matthew also mentions an
earthquake (), see also
Crucifixion eclipse.
According to the Gospels, Jesus
rose from the dead on the third day after his
crucifixion.
[23] The Gospel of Matthew states that an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to
Mary Magdelene and "another Mary" who had arrived to
anoint the body (). According to Luke there were two angels (), and according to Mark there was a youth dressed in white (). In the last section of Mark(), which is considered a later addition by most
biblical scholars(see
Mark 16), it states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to
Mary Magdalene (). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name ().
The
Acts of the Apostles state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days. Hours after his resurrection, he appeared to two travelers on the road to
Emmaus (). To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection (). Although his own ministry had been specifically to Jews, Jesus is said to have sent his apostles to the Gentiles with the
Great Commission and
ascended to heaven while a cloud concealed him from their sight. According to Acts,
Paul of Tarsus also saw Jesus during his
Road to Damascus experience. Jesus promised to
come again to fulfill the remainder of
Messianic prophecy.
[24]
Apostolic fathers
The
Apostolic Fathers, likewise, discussed the death and resurrection of Jesus, including
Ignatius (50−115),
[25] Polycarp (69−155), and
Justin Martyr (100−165).
Non-Christian
Flavius Josephus (''c''. 37–''c''. 100), a
Jew and
Roman citizen who worked under the patronage of the
Flavians, wrote the ''
Antiquities of the Jews'' ''c''. 93, which contains a passage known as the ''
Testimonium Flavianum'' that mentions the death and resurrection of Jesus: "When Pilate, upon the accusation of the first men amongst us, condemned [Jesus] to be crucified, those who had formerly loved him did not cease [to follow him], for he appeared to them on the third day, living again, as the divine prophets foretold, along with a myriad of other marvelous things concerning him."
[26] It is widely held by scholars that at least part of the ''Testimonium Flavianum'' is an interpolation, though a few scholars have supported the authenticity of the entire passage.
[27] (See also
Josephus on Jesus.)
Critical analysis
Historians use the
historical method to study
ancient history. In this process, the accounts of the witnesses are analyzed for their reliability, plausibility, and motive. Defending the historicity of the Biblical narrative, including that of the resurrection, is within the field of study known as
Christian apologetics, and applying the historical method to the Bible (which may or may not conflict with defending historicity) is a field of study known as
Biblical criticism.
[28]
Prior events
Hundreds of years before the birth of Jesus, Jewish prophets promised that a messiah would come. Apologists claim that Jesus fulfilled these
prophecies, which they claim are nearly impossible to fulfill by chance.
[29] Judaism claims that Jesus did not fulfill these prophecies (see
Jewish Messiah). Other skeptics usually claim that the prophecies are either vague or unfulfilled.
[30] Most Christians anticipate the
Second Coming of Jesus, when he will fulfill the rest of
Messianic prophecy, such as the
Last Judgement, the
general resurrection, establishment of the
Kingdom of God, and the
Messianic Age. See the article on
Preterism for contrasting views.
Death of Jesus
The Gospel of John says that a soldier pierced Jesus' side, causing the flow of ''blood and water''. Apologists claim that medical knowledge at the time would have only expected blood. Some scholars have hypothesized the 'water' as
pericardial effusion and
pleural effusion, and maintain that this medical anomaly would have been a fact that the author of the Gospel of John would have been tempted to leave out, had he not been interested in accurate reporting. This flow of water suggests fatal heart trauma required to release pericardial fluid. Without pericardial fluid, the heart may become bruised over time (due to friction between the heart and the pericardium). (The pericardial fluid is not required for the heart to function; it merely acts as a lubricant.) Roman soldiers were trained with such diligence that it is not logical to assume that someone could have survived a piercing in this region of the body. Patients undergoing invasive heart surgery have their pericardium cut open to access the heart.
[31]
In the biblical narrative, following the death the sky is "darkened for 3 hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon), but if this claim concerns anything more than a local phenomenon, it is backed up by no Roman historian. This could not have been a
solar eclipse, as Jesus died during the time of the
full moon,
Nisan 14 or 15.
[32]
The synoptic gospels state that the
veil of
the temple split at this point, and Matthew says that there were earthquakes, splitting rocks, and dead
saints were
resurrected.
[6]
The synoptics report that the
centurion in charge, seeing how Jesus had breathed his last (Mark) or seeing the events that followed (Matthew, Luke) said: "Truly this man was the Son of God" (; or "Truly this was the Son of God" (); or "Surely this was a righteous man" ().
For the sayings, traditionally called "The Seven Last Words," the Gospels say were given by the dying Jesus, see
Sayings of Jesus on the cross.
Entombment
All four Gospels state that, on the evening of the crucifixion,
Joseph of Arimathea asked Pilate for the body of Jesus, and that, after Pilate granted his request, he wrapped Jesus' body in a
linen cloth and laid it in a tomb.
[34] This was in accordance with
Mosaic Law, which stated that a person hanged on a tree must not be allowed to remain there at night, but should be buried before sundown.
[35] In Matthew, Joseph was identified as "also a disciple of Jesus"; in Mark he was identified as "a respected member of the council (
Sanhedrin) who was also himself looking for the Kingdom of God"; in Luke he was identified as "a member of the council, good and righteous, who did not consent to their purpose or deed, and who was looking for the Kingdom of God"; and in John he was identified as "a disciple of Jesus." Mark stated that, when Joseph asked for Jesus' body, Pilate was surprised that Jesus was already dead, and he summoned a centurion to confirm this before dispatching the body to Joseph. John recorded that Joseph was assisted in the burial process by
Nicodemus, who brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes and included these spices in the burial cloth as per Jewish customs.
The synoptics (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) described the burial as occurring on the "Day of Preparation," with Mark providing the explanation of this as the day before the Sabbath. The synoptics described the tomb as "hewn out of the rock," i.e., a
sepulture, with Matthew, Luke, and John stating that it was new (i.e., no one else had been buried there before), and with Matthew stating that the tomb belonged to Joseph. John stated that the tomb was located in a garden near the site of the crucifixion.
The synoptics stated that women saw where Jesus was buried; Matthew named "
Mary Magdalene and the other Mary," Mark named "Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joses," and Luke simply gave "the women who had come with him from Galilee." Matthew gave an account of the chief priests and Pharisees requesting that Pilate secure the tomb, lest Jesus' disciples should steal the body and proclaim Jesus to be risen from the dead, whereupon Pilate said, "you have a guard of soldiers, go, make it as secure as you can"—after which they secured the sepulture by sealing the stone and setting a guard.
W. L. Craig argued that the guard placed at the tomb was a Jewish guard, and that Pilate's words to the chief priests and Pharisees recorded in Matthew, "You have a guard; go, make it as secure as you can," were are rebuff. In support, he observed that Roman guards would have been subject to execution if they slept during watch, and that the Jewish authorities probably could not have provided protection for Roman guards from Pilate, like they could have if the guard was Jewish; thus, he wrote, "if one were to give the story the benefit of the doubt, one would assume the guards were Jewish."
[36]
Resurrection of Jesus
The resurrection of Jesus is foundational to New Testament faith. The act of Jesus rising to life from a state of death is not narrated at all in scripture. Rather the first sign of the resurrection of Jesus is simply the tomb being found empty by the women—which may be the most significant affirmation of women in the New Testament.
[ Stagg, Evalyn and Frank. ''Woman in the World of Jesus." Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978, p. 144–150.]
Some skeptics claim that the corpse of Jesus was either reburied or
stolen. A number of instances of
argument from silence arise here. No ancient sources argue against the tomb being empty. No ancient sources claim that the Jewish and Roman authorities disproved the belief by publicly presenting the corpse of Jesus. There is no record of soldiers being punished for any reason relating to the resurrection.
The Gospel accounts of the resurrection have been the subject of contemporary scholarship using tools of historical and literary analysis. Issues of those accounts include:
★ comparisons with other New Testament accounts of restored life
★ differences in the resurrection narratives
★ the antiquity and continuity of memories on which the accounts rely
★ the reality of the resurrection.
[37]
Tomb discovery
When compared, the accounts of the discovery of the empty tomb are difficult to reconcile into a single sequence of events, though this article attempts to do so. This narrative issue should neither be under- nor over-emphasized however, since it is a well-researched finding in both
psychology and
law that even honest eyewitnesses asked retrospectively to describe an event can give (often greatly) differing accounts, including both accurate and incorrect descriptions.
[38]
Although no single Gospel gives an inclusive or definitive account of the resurrection of Jesus or his appearances, there are two points at which all four Gospels converge:
[39] (1) the linking of the empty tomb tradition and the visit of the women on "the first day of the week," and (2) that the risen Jesus chose first to appear to women (or a woman) and to commission them (her) to proclaim this most important fact to the disciples, including Peter and the other apostles.
Women
All four Gospels make it prominent that women were the ones to find the tomb of Jesus empty. According to Mark and Luke, the announcement of Jesus' resurrection was first made to women. According to Matthew and John, Jesus actually appeared first to women (in John to Mary Magdalene alone). All four Gospels report that women were commissioned to inform Peter and the other apostles as to what has been called "the most fundamental tenet of the Christian faith"—that Jesus is not dead but risen.
[ The fact that Jesus chose women to announce his resurrection is seen by Baptist New Testament scholar Dr. Frank Stagg as "the strongest possible affirmation of woman." He believes it is "strange" that woman's right to teach or preach has been challenged by a church which, according to the Gospels, was first informed by women that Jesus is not among the dead but among the living.][ (p. 145)]
In the Gospels, especially the synoptics, women play a central role as eyewitness at Jesus' death, entombment, and in the discovery of the empty tomb. All three synoptics repeatedly make women the subject of verbs of seeing,[41] clearly presenting them as eyewitnesses.[42]
The presence of women as the key witnesses who discover the empty tomb has been seen as increasing the credibility of the testimony, since, in the contemporary culture (Jewish and Greco-Roman), one would expect a fabrication to place men, and especially numerous and important men, at this critical place, rather than just "some grieving women."[43] C. H. Dodd considered the narrative in John to be "self-authenticating" since no one would make up the notion that Jesus had appeared to the "little known woman" Mary Magdalene.[44] There are, however, few contemporary examples of women giving testimony[45]: Josephus[46] and Pliny the Younger[47] have used women as witnesses to their claims.
All three synoptics name two or three women on each occasion in the passion-resurrection narratives where they are cited as eyewitnesses: the Torah's required two or three witnesses () in a statute that had exerted influence beyond legal courts and into situations in everyday life where accurate evidence was needed.[48] Among the named women (and some are left anonymous), Mary Magdalene is present in all four Gospel accounts, and Mary the mother of James is present in all three synoptics; however, variations exist in the lists of each Gospel concerning the women present at the death, entombment, and discovery. For example, Mark names three women at the cross and the same three who go to the tomb, but only two are observed to be witnesses at the burial. Based on this, and similar examples in Matthew and Luke, Richard Bauckham argued that the evangelists showed "scrupulous care" and "were careful to name precisely the women who were known to them as witnesses to these crucial events" since there would be no other reason, besides interest in historical accuracy, not to simply use the same set of characters from one scene to another.[49]
Despite the unanimity of the Gospels that Jesus appeared first to women after his resurrection, Paul does not mention the women being the first witnesses to the resurrection (1 Corinthians ). It can only be surmised that the most likely reason was that Paul, along with the rest of the church, stressed only the appearances to men as the "official" witness of the early church. The witness of a woman was not recognized in Jewish courts of the time. "Whereas others found woman not qualified or authorized to teach, the four Gospels have it that the risen Christ commissioned women to ''teach'' men, including Peter and the other apostles, the resurrection, foundation of Christianity.
Mark's account (which in the earliest extant manuscripts) ends abruptly and claims that the women told no one. The Gospels of Matthew and Mark do not present any further involvement at the tomb. Luke describes Peter as running to the tomb to check for himself, and John adds that the Beloved Disciple did so too, the beloved disciple outrunning Peter.[50]
There is some scriptural variation as to whom the women told and in what order.[51] Curiously, Mary also addresses Jesus as “Lord.â€[52]
Men
William Hole's interpretation of the Beloved Disciple joining Peter in the tomb
Luke merely states that after seeing the vacancy of the tomb, Peter was ''wondering what had happened'', John gives a detailed account. ()
John describes the beloved disciple only as making a cursory glance at the linen, Peter is described as carefully examining the scene. After making their examination, the Beloved Disciple apparently draws a conclusion. (John 20:8–9)
Once Peter has entered, John describes the Beloved Disciple as entering the tomb whereupon ''he believed'' as ''they knew not'' about ''the scripture''. What exactly the Beloved Disciple ''believed'', and who exactly ''they'' are, and what ''scripture'' exactly is being referenced, is not explained. The word used to mean ''scripture'' is singular and most of the time this form is used to refer to single quotations. Several passages from the Old Testament have been proposed as likely candidates for this source such as Psalm , Hosea , and Jonah . Since most of the New Testament was written before the Gospel of John, candidates have also been suggested from these texts. John only indicates that Peter and the Beloved Disciple were present, but it is possible that one or both of the people named ''Mary'' may also have been there, and thus Hartmann believes ''they'' refers to Peter and Mary being in ignorance about a resurrection.
Since the only mention in John of the tomb having any content describes it only as having grave clothes, this paucity of evidence for anything more than the body being stolen would make the Beloved Disciple rather gullible if it were a resurrection he suddenly believed in. A question also arises as to why, according to John, the Beloved Disciple doesn't tell Peter and ''them'' about this. A long line of major scholars including Augustine of Hippo and John Calvin have thus argued that the Beloved Disciple simply came to believe Mary Magdalene's story that the body was gone. Unlike Hartmann, and those sharing his view, most scholars regard ''they'' as referring to Peter and the Beloved Disciple, pointing to them both being ignorant about any resurrection, and pointing to the conclusion that the Beloved Disciple had come to believe some other issue.
Scholars of textual criticism, however, have in modern times argued that the passage does actually refer to belief in a resurrection, but that the reason it seems odd in light of the surrounding narrative, especially that it isn't mentioned again, is because the reference to him believing is a later addition to the text, a view expounded for example by Schnackenberg. The version of John in the ancient Codex Bezae has the passage reading that ''he saw and did 'not' believe'', which seems a more logically in keeping with the rest of the chapter, and may indicate that most modern texts are derived from an ancient scribal error, much like the typographic error in the Wicked Bible. Bultmann has called John 20:9 ''a gloss of the ecclesiastical redaction'', also arguing that the verse is a later addition, particularly since it references scripture as indicating that Jesus must ''rise from the dead'', which is out of character in John, since John almost always prefers instead to use the wording ''ascend from the dead''. A few scholars, however, believe that the statement is original but misplaced, feeling it should follow John 20:11, though Bruce disagrees, arguing that since it presents itself as an explanation of a prior passage, it makes the link to the currently preceding text clear.
Luke and John both have the disciple(s) return ''home'', which probably refers to Jerusalem, but possibly also Galilee.[53]
Resurrection appearances of Jesus
In the ''Supper at Emmaus'',
Caravaggio depicted the moment the disciples recognise their risen lord
Main articles: Resurrection appearances of Jesus
After the discovery of the empty tomb, the Gospels indicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the disciples, with the most notable being to the disciples in the upper room, where Thomas did not believe until he was invited to put his finger into the holes in Jesus' hands and side (); along the road to Emmaus, where people talked about their failed hopes that Jesus would be the messiah before recognising Jesus (); and beside the Sea of Galilee to encourage Peter to serve his followers (). His final appearance is reported as being forty days after the resurrection when he ascended into heaven,[6] where he remains.
Next, there are a few resurrection appearances of Jesus. One notable appearance is to the apostle Thomas, who did not believe until he stuck his fingers in the nail holes in Jesus' hands and spear-hole in his side. Thomas' experience would mutually exclude the vision hypothesis, that Jesus appeared as a vision to various followers as either a divine vision or a hallucination. (See the article on Gary Habermas' work.)
Six months later, on the road to Damascus, a one time rabbi and persecutor of the early church named Paul of Tarsus converted to Christianity. A few years later, Paul became Christianity's foremost missionary, converting hundreds of people, planting dozens of churches throughout Southeastern Europe, and writing letters that would become part of Christian scripture. On one missionary journey, Paul travels to Athens and speaks at the Areopagus, where he claims that over 500 people were witnesses of the resurrected Jesus, many still alive at the time.[6]
One point on which some consensus is reached by Apologist and Skeptical factions of biblical scholars and historians is that the disciples would have ''thought'' they had met the resurrected Jesus.
Authorship of the story
The poor educational level that would be expected of the early disciples of Jesus, according to their descriptions in the New Testament, and the comparatively early timeframe in which they recorded the events, is argued by apologists to reduce their likelihood of being able to devise an elaborate account.[56]
In Mark's account, the earliest manuscripts of Mark 16 break off abruptly at 16:8, where the men at the empty tomb announce Jesus' resurrection, lacking post-resurrection appearances of Jesus. The modern text of Mark 16:9–20 does not appear in the earliest manuscripts.[57] Many modern translations of Mark 16 end at Mark 16:8 with ''for they were afraid'', sometimes adding 16:8–20 in italics, or in a foot note; the New Revised Standard Version gives both the "long ending," i.e., 16:8–20, and another variant "short ending" after Mark 16:8.
Those who think Paul was a Gnostic Christian hold the belief that Paul talks of the resurrection as an allegory or that Paul thought that Jesus was never a human.[58]
Today
The Jewish perspective is that the body of Jesus was removed in the same night, see also Stolen body hypothesis.[59] Apologists see this an acknowledgment that the tomb was empty, with an attempt to explain it away.[60] The ''Toledoth Yeshu'', however, dates from mediaeval times, and is not an early source. It was a conflation of the Talmud accounts of multiple people named Yeshu. None of the Talmudic Yeshu accounts are in any way flattering, or refer to any supernatural abilities, and many refer to people named Yeshu who lived in time periods significantly before or after the lifetime of Jesus.
The Islamic perspective is that Jesus was not crucified, but someone who looked like Jesus died in his place.[61] This view is also given in the uncanonical Gospel of Barnabas which identifies Judas as the one crucified. The fate of Judas Iscariot recorded in the Bible can be considered contradictory on some details, although both writers state he died an untimely death.(, ). The Gospel of Barnabus generally conforms to the Islamic interpretation of Christian origins and is considered by the majority of academics to be late, pseudepigraphical and a pious fraud.
The Ahmadiyya Movement (an Islamic sect that originated during the 19th Century, with a small number of followers but now numbers around 80 million) believes that Jesus survived the crucifixion and traveled to Kashmir, where he died as a prophet under the name of Yuz Asaf (whose grave they identify in Srinagar, India).[62]
See also
★ Christianity
★ Jesus
★ Talpiot Tomb
★ The Lost Tomb of Jesus
★ Islamic view of Jesus' death
Footnotes and references
1. Lorenzen, Thorwald. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today.'' Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys, 2003, p. 13.
2. David Marshall. ''He is risen indeed!'' http://dialogue.adventist.org/articles/15_3_marshall_e.htm
3. , , , , , , and .
4. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
5. , , , , , , , , , , , ,
6.
7. The 'Parousia' is the term used in the Bible, see Strong's G3952 for details, which includes the Thayer's Lexicon definition: "In the N.T. especially of ''the advent'', i.e.,the future, visible, ''return'' from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the dead, hold the last judgment, and set up formally and gloriously the kingdom of God." According to the Bauer lexicon: "of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age."
8. Reginald H. Fuller, ''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'' (New York: Scribners, 1965), p. 11.
9. A Jesus Seminar conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary." ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''
10. Jung, Carl, ''The Answer to Job'' online excerpt
11. For example, see ). See also Sermon on the Mount
12. "Doctrine of the Atonement." ''Catholic Encyclopedia." http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02055a.htm
13. Johnson Alan F., and Robert E. Webber. ''What Christians Believe: A Biblical and Historical Summary.'' Zondervan, 1993, pp. 261–263.
14. Schwarz, Hans. ''Theology in a Global Context: The Last Two Hundred Years.'' Eerdmans Books for Young Readers, 2005, pp. 255ff.
15. A basic text is that of Oscar Cullmann, available in English in a translation by J. K. S. Reid titled, ''The Earliest Christian Confessions'' (London: Lutterworth, 1949)
16. Neufeld, ''The Earliest Christian Confessions'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) p. 47; Reginald Fuller, ''The Formation of the Resurrection Narratives'' (New York: Macmillan, 1971) p. 10; Wolfhart Pannenberg, ''Jesus—God and Man'' translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, ''The Earlychurch: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology'', ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 64; Hans Conzelmann, ''1 Corinthians'', translated James W. Leitch (Philadelphia: Fortress 1969) p. 251; Bultmann, ''Theology of the New Testament'' vol. 1 pp. 45, 80–82, 293; R. E. Brown, ''The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus'' (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81, 92
17. see Wolfhart Pannenberg, ''Jesus—God and Man'' translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, ''The Early church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology'', ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 66–66; R. E. Brown, ''The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus'' (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81; Thomas Sheehan, ''First Coming: How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity'' (New York: Random House, 1986 pp. 110, 118; Ulrich Wilckens, ''Resurrection'' translated A. M. Stewart (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew, 1977) p. 2; Hans Grass, ''Ostergeschen und Osterberichte'', Second Edition (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1962) p. 96; Grass favors the origin in Damascus.
18. Hans von Campenhausen, "The Events of Easter and the Empty Tomb," in ''Tradition and Life in the Church'' (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968) p. 44
19. Archibald Hunter, ''Works and Words of Jesus'' (1973) p. 100
20. Wolfhart Pannenberg, ''Jesus—God and Man'' translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) pp. 118, 283, 367; Neufeld, ''The Earliest Christian Confessions'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) pp. 7, 50; C. H. Dodd, ''The Apostolic Preaching and its Developments'' (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980), p. 14
21. Bultmann, ''Theology of the New Testament'' vol 1, pp. 49, 81; Joachim Jeremias, ''The Eucharistic Words of Jesus'' translated Norman Perrin (London: SCM Press, 1966) p. 102
22. ; .
23. ; ; ; ; ;
24. ''Ministering to Israel'': ; ''ascension'': ; , ; ''Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus'': , ; ; ''Second coming'':
25. Ignatius makes many passing references, but two extended discussions are found in the Letter to the Trallians and the Letter to the Smyrnaeans.
26. Josephus ''Antiquities 18.3.3''
27. Daniel-Rops, ''Silence of Jesus' Contemporaries'' p. 21.
28. www.newadvent.org/cathen/04497a.htm
29. Peter W. Stoner, ''Science Speaks'', Moody Pr, 1958, ISBN 0–8024–7630–9
30. Prophecies: Imaginary and Unfulfilled
31. Edwards, William D.; Gabel, Wesley J.; Hosmer, Floyd E;On the Physical Death of Jesus, 1986, JAMA March 21, Vol 255, No. 11, pp 1455–1463
32. Carpenter, Glen. ''Connections.'' Xulon Press, 2004, pp. 13ff.
33.
34. , , ,
35. R. E. Brown, ''The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus'' (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 147; cf. .
36. W. L. Craig "The Guard at the Tomb. ''New Testament Studies '' 30 (1984), 273–81.
37. Raymond E. Brown, 1990. "The Resurrection of Jesus," in Raymond E. Brown et al., ''The New Jerome Biblical Commentary'', Prentice Hall, pp. 1373–77, with references.
38. ''Eyewitness Evidence Improving Its Probative Value.'' http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/gwells/Wells_articles_pdf/pspi_7_2_article[1].pdf
39. , , , and
40. Setzer, Claudia. "Excellent Women: Female Witness to the Resurrection." ''Journal of Biblical Literature,'' Vol. 116, No. 2 (Summer, 1997), pp. 259–272
41. Richard Bauckham, ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses'' (Eerdmans Publishing Company: Cambridge, 2006), p. 48.
42. B. Gerhardsson, 'Mark and the Female Witnesses', in H. Behrens, D. Loding, and M. T. Roth, eds., ''Dumu-E2-Dub-Ba-A'' (A. W. Sjöberg FS; Occasional Papers of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 11; Philadelphia: The University Museum, 1989), pp. 219–220, 222–223; S. Byrskog, ''Story as History—History as Story'' (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Jerusalem Talmud 123; Tübingen: Mohr, 2000; remprinted Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp. 75–78; Richard Bauckham, ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses'' (Eerdmans Publishing Company: Cambridge, 2006), p. 48.
43. Ben Witherington III, ''What have they done with Jesus'' (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 2006), p. 50.
44. C. H. Dodd, ''The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953)
45. John Wenham, Easter Enigma: Are the Resurrection Accounts in Conflict? (Second ed., Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1992), pp. 150-51, n. 26.
46. Jewish War, 7.389 and 4.81
47. Pliny the Younger, Epistles, X.96.
48. B. Gerhardsson, “Mark and the Female Witnesses,†in H. Behrens, D. Loding, and M. T. Roth, eds., ''Dumu-E2-Dub-Ba-A'' (A. W. Sjöberg FS; Occasional Papers of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 11; Philadelphia: The University Museum, 1989), p. 218; Richard Bauckham, ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses'' (Eerdmans Publishing Company: Cambridge, 2006), p. 49.
49. Richard Bauckham, ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses'' (Eerdmans Publishing Company: Cambridge, 2006), pp. 50–51.
50. To answer the question of running speed: It is never explained why the disciple(s) move(s) from merely traveling to running, and it has often been speculated that running only occurred on the last stretch once the tomb had come within sight. John Calvin instead speculated that the rush was due to religious zeal. In particular, John describes the Beloved Disciple as outracing Peter, though waiting for Peter to arrive before entering the tomb, with some scholars seeing the out-racing as a metaphoric elevation of the Beloved Disciple above Peter. However, many Christian scholars object to this interpretation, instead arguing that since the ''Beloved Disciple'' is usually interpreted as a reference to the author of John, it would be necessary for him to be considerably younger than Peter, and hence his speed could be due simply to youthful vigour.
Another question is why John the Beloved Disciple pauses outside the tomb. While many view it as being due to his not wanting to violate death ritual by entering a tomb, in contrast to Peter who has no such qualm and instead enters immediately, most scholars believe John is simply deferring to Peter, particularly since the Beloved Disciple enters the tomb once Peter is inside. [1]
51. What happens once Mary (and Mary) has seen the occupier(s)/empty tomb is again one of the more variant parts of this narrative. According to Mark, even though the man in the tomb instructs Mary and Mary to inform the disciples 'and' Peter, they flee in fear and do 'not' tell ''anything to any man''. Like Mark, Matthew presents Mary and Mary as being instructed by the tomb's occupant to inform the disciples, but unlike Mark's account they happily do so, and Peter has no special status amongst the others. Luke, again, merely presents Mary and Mary as telling ''the eleven'' and ''the rest'', but presents them as doing so apparently without being instructed. John's account is quite different: John only describes Mary as informing two people—Peter and the Beloved Disciple, an individual that is usually considered to be a self-reference by the author of the gospel John.
52. John had not previously described any of the followers as using this title, and Mary also states that '''we' don't know where they put him,'' even though at this point only Mary is described as having been to the tomb.
To those who believe in inerrancy, ''lord'' is used here because Jesus only gained the title on dying, and that ''we'' is evidence that John actually agrees with the synoptics and merely didn't regard the other women as worth mentioning. However, most textual scholars see this as a typical contradiction by John of the synoptic gospels, arguing that ''we'' is a later modification to hide the discrepancy, as evidenced by some ancient manuscripts of John which have ''I'' instead of ''we'' at this point. Brown, on the other hand, has proposed that as the remainder of the passage wasn't subjected to such harmonising, the speech by Mary must have been written by a different author from the rest of the gospel.
53. Raymond E. Brown claims that the majority of scholars interpret ''home'' as the location that the disciple(s) had been staying in Jerusalem, and hence a substantially briefer journey.
54.
55.
56. ChristianAnswers.net, ''Resurrection: a Myth''
57. Bruce Metzger's ''Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament'', p. 122, commentary on Mark 16.9-20: "The last twelve verses of the commonly received text of Mark are absent from the two oldest Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus), from the Old Latin Codex Bobiensis, the Sinaitic Syriac manuscript, syr(s), about one hundred Armenian manuscripts, and the two oldest Georgian manuscripts ...
58. Pagels, Elaine, ''The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters'', 1992, ISBN 0–8006–0403–2
59. Found in the Toledoth Yeshu (text), Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho the Jew chapter CVII: "his disciples stole him by night from the tomb, where he was laid when unfastened from the cross, and now deceive men by asserting that he has risen from the dead and ascended to heaven," ,
60. Perman, Matt Evidence for the Resurrection
61. Qur'an, Sura 4:156
62. Ahmad, M. M. "The Lost Tribes of Israel: The Travels of Jesus", Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, Retrieved April 14, 2007. This view has also been taken up by some western authors, Nicolai Notovitch in ''Unknown life of Saint Issa'' 1894, Günter Grönbold, ''Jesus In Indien'', München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3466202701. Norbert Klatt, ''Lebte Jesus in Indien?'', Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.
Further reading
Pro-Resurrection
''Articles:''
★ Bruce, FF, ''The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'', 1985, Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press
★ Catholic Encyclopedia, The resurrection of Jesus Christ
★ David Marshall (Ph.D.). "The Risen Jesus" an essay in '' Essential Jesus,'' edited by Bryan Ball and William Johnsson, and published by Pacific Press in 2002.
★ Craig, William Lane, Contemporary Scholarship and the Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, 1985, Truth 1 89–95
★ Yamauchi, Edwin, Easter: Myth, Hallucination, or History?, 1974, Christianity Today
''Books:''
★ Habermas, Gary, ''The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ'' (College Press: Joplin, MI 1996).
★ Habermas, Gary and Licona, Michael, ''The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus'', Kregel Publications, 2004.
★ McDowell, Josh, ''New Evidence that Demands a Verdict'', Thomas Nelson, Inc, Publishers, 1999
★ Strobel, Lee, ''The Case for Easter'', Zondervan Publishing Company, 2004.
★ Wenham, John. ''Easter Enigma: Do the Resurrection Stories Contradict One Another? '' Cambridge University Press, 1993.
★ Wright, N.T., ''The Resurrection of the Son of God.'' Fortress Press. 2003 Online excerpt
Sceptical
''Articles:''
★ Carrier, Richard, ''Why I Don't Buy the Resurrection Story, 2006 (6th ed.)
★ Lowder, Jeffery Jay, ''The Historicity of Jesus' Resurrection, 1995
★ Lowder, Jeffery Jay, ''Historical Evidence and the Empty Tomb Story: A Reply to William Lane Craig, 2001
★ Tobin, Paul, ''The Pagan Origins of the Resurrection Myth'', 2000
★ Price, Robert M., ''By This Time He Stinketh: The Attempts of William Lane Craig to Exhume Jesus''. 1997.
★ Rethinking the resurrection.(of Jesus Christ)(Cover Story) Newsweek, April 8th 1996, Woodward, Kenneth L.
''Books:''
★ Robert M. Price and Jeffery Jay Lowder, ''The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave (ISBN 1–59102–286-X)'', 2005
★ Paine, Thomas, ''The Age of Reason'', 1795
★ Spong, John Shelby, ''Resurrection : Myth or Reality? '', 1995
Dialogues
★ Craig, William Lane, ''Jesus' Resurrection: Fact or Figment?: A Debate Between William Lane Craig and Gerd Ludemann''
★ Stewart, Robert B. ''The Resurrection of Jesus: John Dominic Crossan And N.T. Wright in Dialogue'', 2006
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