'Criminology' is the
scientific study of
crime as an individual and social phenomenon. Criminological research areas include the incidence and forms of crime as well as its causes and consequences. They also include social and governmental regulations and reactions to crime. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in the
behavioural sciences, drawing especially on the research of
sociologists and
psychologists, as well as on writings in
law. In 1885, Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo coined the term "criminology" (in Italian, ''criminologia''). The French anthropologist Paul Topinard used it for the first time in French (''criminologie'') around the same time.
[1]
Schools of thought
In the mid-18th century, criminology arose as
social philosophers gave thought to crime and concepts of law. Over time, several schools of thought have developed.
Classical school
The
Classical School, which developed in the mid 18th century, was based on
utilitarian philosophy.
Cesare Beccaria, author of ''
On Crimes and Punishments'' (1763-64),
Jeremy Bentham, inventor of the ''
panopticon'', and other classical school philosophers argued that (1) people have free will to choose how to act. (2) Deterrence is based upon the utilitarian ontological notion of the human being a 'hedonist' who seeks pleasure and avoids pain, and a 'rational calculator' weighing up the costs and benefits of the consequences of each action. Thus, it ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivational factors (3)
Punishment (of sufficient severity) can deter people from crime, as the costs (penalties) outweigh benefits, and that severity of punishment should be proportionate to the crime.
[2] (4) The more swift and certain the punishment, the more effective it is in deterring criminal behavior. The Classical school of thought came about at a time when major reform in
penology occurred, with
prisons developed as a form of punishment. Also, this time period saw many
legal reforms, the
French Revolution, and the development of the
legal system in the
United States.
Positivist school
The
Positivist School presumes that criminal behaviour is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individual's control. The
scientific method was introduced and applied to study human behavior. Positivism can be broken up into three segments which include biological, psychological and social positivism.
Cesare Lombroso, an Italian prison doctor working in the late 19th century and sometimes regarded as the "father" of criminology, was one of the largest contributors to biological positivism.
[3] Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence, for studying crime.
[4] Considered as the founder of
criminal anthropology, he suggested that physiological traits such as the measurements of one's cheek bones or hairline, or a cleft palate, considered to be throwbacks to
Neanderthal man, were indicative of "
atavistic" criminal tendencies. This approach, influenced by the earlier theory of
phrenology and by
Charles Darwin and his
theory of evolution, has been superseded, but more modern research examines genetic characteristics and the chemistry of
nutrition to determine whether there is an effect on violent behaviour (see
Natural Justice).
Enrico Ferri, a student of Lombroso, believed that social as well as biological factors played a role, and held the view that criminals should not be held responsible for the factors causing their criminality were beyond their control. Lombroso's biological theories have since been rejected by criminologists, with
control groups not used in his studies.
[5]
Hans Eysenck (1964, 1977), a British psychologist, claimed that psychological factors such as
Extraversion and
Neuroticism made a person more likely to commit criminal acts. He also includes a
Psychoticism dimension that includes traits similar to the
psychopathic profile, developed by
Hervey M. Cleckley and later
Robert Hare. He also based his model on early parental
socialization of the child; his approach bridges the gap between biological explanations and environmental or social learning based approaches, (see e.g. social psychologists
B. F. Skinner (1938),
Albert Bandura (1973), and the topic of "
nature vs. nurture".)
Sociological positivism postulates that societal factors such as
poverty, membership of subcultures, or low levels of
education can predispose people to crime.
Adolphe Quetelet made use of
data and
statistical analysis to gain insight into relationship between
crime and
sociological factors. He found that age,
gender,
poverty,
education, and
alcohol consumption were important factors related to crime.
[6]
Rawson W. Rawson utilized
crime statistics to suggest a link between
population density and
crime rates, with crowded cities creating an environment conducive for crime.
[7] Joseph Fletcher and
John Glyde also presented papers to the
Statistical Society of London on their studies of crime and its distribution.
[8] Henry Mayhew used
empirical methods and an
ethnographic approach to address social questions and
poverty, and presented his studies in ''
London Labour and the London Poor''.
[9] Emile Durkheim viewed crime as an inevitable aspect of
society, with uneven distribution of
wealth and other differences among people.
Chicago School
The
Chicago School arose in the early twentieth century, through the work of
Robert Ezra Park,
Ernest Burgess, and other
urban sociologists at
University of Chicago. In the 1920s, Park and Burgess identified five
concentric zones that often exist as cities grow, including the "zone in transition" which was identified as most volatile and subject to disorder. In the 1940s, Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw focused on
juvenile delinquents, finding that they were concentrated in the zone of transition.
Chicago School sociologists adopted a
social ecology approach to studying cities, and postulated that urban neighborhoods with high levels of
poverty often experience breakdown in the
social structure and institutions such as
family and
schools. This results in
social disorganization, which reduces the ability of these institutions to control
behavior and creates an environment ripe for
deviant behavior.
Other researchers suggested an added social-psychological link.
Edwin Sutherland suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced criminals that they may associate with.
Theories of crime
Theoretical perspectives used in criminology include
psychoanalysis,
functionalism,
interactionism,
Marxism,
econometrics,
systems theory,
postmodernism, etc.
Social structure theories
Social disorganization (neighborhoods)
Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago School.
[10] Social disorganization theory postulates that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to experience high rates of
population turnover.
[11] These neighborhoods also tend to have high population
heterogeneity.
With high turnover, informal
social structure often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain
social order in a community.
Social ecology
Since the 1970s, social ecology studies have built on the social disorganization theories. Many studies have found that crime rates are associated with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of community deterioration.
As
working and
middle class people leave deteriorating neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain.
William Julius Wilson suggested a poverty "concentration effect", which may cause neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone to
violence.
Strain theory (social class)
Strain theory, advanced by American sociologist
Robert Merton, suggests that mainstream
culture, especially in the
United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom and prosperity; as Merton put it, the ''
American Dream''. Most people buy into this dream and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation. Merton also used the term ''
anomie'', but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for
Durkheim. Merton saw the term as meaning a
dichotomy between what society expected of its citizens, and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of them will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it. Others will retreat or drop out into
deviant subcultures (
gang members, "hobos": urban homeless drunks and
drug abusers).
[13]
Subcultural theory
Main articles: subcultural theory
Following on from the
Chicago School and Strain Theory, and also drawing on
Edwin H. Sutherland's idea of
differential association, subcultural theorists focused on small cultural groups fragmenting away from the mainstream to form their own values and meanings about life.
Albert Cohen tied anomie theory with
Freud's
reaction formation idea, suggesting that delinquency among lower class youths is a reaction against the
social norms of the middle class.
[14] Some youth, especially from poorer areas where opportunities are scarce, might adopt social norms specific to those places which may include "toughness" and disrespect for authority. Criminal acts may result when youths conform to norms of the deviant subculture.
[15]
Richard Cloward and
Lloyd Ohlin suggested that deliquency can result from differential opportunity for lower class youth.
[16] Such youths may be tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as
minimum wage-paying jobs available to them.
British subcultural theorists focused more heavily on the issue of class, where some criminal activities were seen as 'imaginary solutions' to the problem of belonging to a subordinate class. A further study by the Chicago school looked at gangs and the influence of the interaction of gang leaders under the observation of adults.
Individual theories
Trait theories
Biosocial and
psychological trait theories have emerged in modern criminology, as scientific knowledge of
genetics,
biochemistry, and
neurology has grown. Biosocial theorists believe in
equipotentiality and that genetics significantly influence
human behavior. They believe that biological factors, together with environmental and social factors, influence a person's propensity for crime. Research into biosocial theories has looked at
vitamin definciency and
antisocial behavior, the link between high consumption of
sugar and
aggressive behavior, and possible influence of
hormones.
Environmental contamination, particularly
lead levels, and links to aggressive behavior is another research focus of biosocial theorists.
Control theories
Another approach is made by the social bond or
social control theory. Instead of looking for factors that make people become criminal, those theories try to explain why people do not become criminal. Travis Hirschi identified four main characteristics: "attachment to others", "belief in moral validity of rules", "commitment to achievement" and "involvement in conventional activities".
[17] The more a person features those characteristics, the less are the chances that he or she becomes deviant (or criminal). On the other hand, if those factors are not present in a person, it is more likely that he or she might become criminal. Hirschi expanded on this theory, with the idea that a person with low
self-control is more likely to become criminal.
[18] A simple example: someone wants to have a big yacht, but does not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control, he or she might try to get the yacht (or the means for it) in an illegal way; whereas someone with high self-control will (more likely) either wait or deny themself that need. Social bonds, through
peers,
parents, and others, can have a countering effect on one's low self-control. For families of low socio-economic status, a factor that distinguishes families with delinquent children from those who are not delinquent is the control exerted by parents or
chaperonage.
[19]
Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism draws on the
phenomenology of
Edmund Husserl and
George Herbert Mead, as well as
subcultural theory and
conflict theory.
[20] This school of thought focused on the relationship between the powerful state, media and conservative ruling elite on the one hand, and the less powerful groups on the other. The powerful groups had the ability to become the 'significant other' in the less powerful groups' processes of generating meaning. The former could to some extent impose their meanings on the latter, and therefore they were able to 'label' minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take on board the label, indulge in crime more readily and become actors in the 'self-fulfilling prophecy' of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories were by
Howard Becker and
Edwin Lemert, in the mid 20th century.
[21] Stanley Cohen who developed the concept of "
moral panic" (describing societal reaction to spectacular, alarming social phenomena such as post-World War Two youth cultures (e.g. the ''
Mods and Rockers'' in the UK in 1964), AIDS and
football hooliganism).
Deterrence
Rational choice theory
Main articles: Rational choice theory (criminology)
Rational choice theory is based on the
utilitarian, classical school philosophies of
Cesare Beccaria, which were popularized by Jeremy Bentham. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender. In ''
Dei delitti e delle pene'' (On Crime and Punishment, 1763-1764), Beccaria advocated a rational
penology. Beccaria conceived of punishment as the necessary application of the law for a crime: thus, the judge was simply to conform his sentence to the law. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and
sin, and advocated against the
death penalty, as well as
torture and inhumane treatments, as he did not consider themselves rational deterrents.
This philosophy was replaced by the Positivist and Chicago Schools, and not revived until the 1970s with the writings of
James Q. Wilson,
Gary Becker's 1965 article titled "Crime and Punishment
[22]" and
George Stigler's 1970 article "The Optimum Enforcement of Laws
[23]." Rational choice theory argues that criminals, like other people, weigh costs/risks and benefits when deciding whether or not to commit crime and think in
economic terms.
[24] They will also try to minimize risks of crime by considering the time, place, and other situational factors.
Gary Becker, for example, acknowledged that many people operate under a high moral and ethical constraint, but considered that criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost such as the probability of apprehension, conviction, punishment, as well as their current set of opportunities. From the public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal to that of the cost of increasing surveillance, one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance.
With this perspective,
crime prevention or reduction measures can be devised that increase effort required to commit the crime, such as target hardening.
[25] Rational choice theories also suggest that increasing risk of offending and likelihood of being caught, through added
surveillance,
police or
security guard presence, added street
lighting, and other measures, are effective in reducing crime.
One of the main difference between this theory and
Jeremy Bentham's rational choice theory, which had been abandoned in criminology, is that if Bentham considered it possible to completely annihilate crime (through the
panopticon), Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarket's products were stolen, it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15%, quite easy to reduce it until 5%, difficult to reduce it under 3% and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero (a feat which would cost the supermarket, in surveillance, etc., that it would outweight the benefices).
Such rational choice theories, linked to
neoliberalism, have been at the basics of
crime prevention through environmental design.
Routine activity theory
Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen, drew upon control theories and explained crime in terms of crime opportunities that occur in everyday life.
[26] A crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time and
place including (1) a motivated offender (2) suitable target or victim (3) lack of a capable
guardian.
[27] A guardian at a place, such as a street, could include security guards or even ordinary
pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly intervene or report it to police.
Routine activity theory was expanded by John Eck, who added a fourth element of "place manager" such as rental property managers who can take
nuisance abatement measures.
[28]
Types and definitions of crime
Both the Positivist and Classical Schools take a consensus view of crime — that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are two types of laws:
★ Natural laws are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of
common law systems.
★
Statutes are enacted by
legislatures and reflect current cultural
mores, albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit
marijuana use and
gambling.
Marxist Criminology,
Conflict Criminology and Critical Criminology claim that most relationships between
State and
citizen are non-consensual and, as such,
criminal law is not necessarily representative of public beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the ruling or dominant class. The more right wing criminologies tend to posit that there is a consensual
social contract between State and citizen.
Therefore, definitions of crimes will vary from place to place, in accordance to the cultural
norms and mores, but may be broadly classified as
blue-collar crime,
corporate crime,
organized crime,
political crime,
public order crime,
state crime,
state-corporate crime, and
white-collar crime.
Subtopics
Areas of study in criminology include:
★ Causes and correlates of crime
★
Crime prevention
★
Crime statistics
★ Criminal behavior
★ Criminal careers and desistance
★
Deviant behavior
★
Evaluation of criminal justice agencies
★
Penology
★
Sociology of law
★
Victimology
Comparative criminology is the study of the social phenomenon of crime across cultures, to identify differences and similarities in crime patterns.
[29]
See also
★
Crime
★
Criminal law
★
Ethics
★
Sociology
References
1. Sociological Theory and Criminological Research: Views from Europe and the United States, Deflem, Mathieu, , , Elsevier, , ISBN 0762313226
2. On Crimes and Punishments, and Other Writings, Beccaria, Cesare, , , Cambridge University Press, 1764, ISBN 0521402034
3. Criminology, 8th edition, Siegel, Larry J., , , Thomson-Wadsworth, ,
4. Crime and Society: Readings in History and Theory, McLennan, Gregor, Jennie Pawson, Mike Fitzgerald, , , Routledge, , ISBN 0415027551
5. Criminology, 8th edition, Siegel, Larry J., , , Thomson-Wadsworth, ,
6. Adolphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist Criminology, Beirne, Piers, , , American Journal of Sociology,
7. City Limits: Crime, Consumerism and the Urban Experience, Hayward, Keith J., , , Routledge, , ISBN 1904385036
8. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition, Garland, David, , , Oxford University Press, ,
9. Henry Mayhew: London Labour and the London Poor
10. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas, Shaw, Clifford R. and McKay, Henry D., , , The University of Chicago Press, ,
11. Social Disorganization and Theories of Crime and Delinquency: Problems and Prospects, Bursik Jr., Robert J., , , Criminology,
12. Neighborhood Inequality, Collective Efficacy and the Spatial Dynamics of Urban Violence, Morenoff, Jeffrey, Robert Sampson, Stephen Raudenbush, , , Criminology, 2001
13. Social Theory and Social Structure, Merton, Robert, , , Free Press, 1957,
14. Delinquent Boys, Cohen, Albert, , , Free Press, ,
15. Social Sources of Delinquency, Kornhauser, R., , , University of Chicago Press, ,
16. Delinquency and Opportunity, Cloward, Richard, Lloyd Ohlin, , , Free Press, ,
17. Causes of Delinquency, Hirschi, Travis, , , Transaction Publishers, ,
18. A General Theory of Crime, Gottfredson, M., T. Hirschi, , , Stanford University Press, 1990,
19. Parental Supervision: A Neglected Aspect of Delinquency, Wilson, Harriet, , , British Journal of Criminology,
20. Mind Self and Society, Mead, George Herbert, , , University of Chicago Press, 1934,
21. Outsiders, Becker, Howard, , , Free Press, 1963,
22. Gary Becker, "Crime and Punishment", in ''Journal of Political Economy'', vol. 76 (2), March-April 1968, p.196-217
23. George Stigler, "The Optimum Enforcement of Laws", in ''Journal of Political Economy'', vol.78 (3), May-June 1970, p.526-536
24. The Reasoning Criminal, Cornish, Derek, and Ronald V. Clarke, , , Springer-Verlag, 1986,
25. Situational Crime Prevention, Clarke, Ronald V., , , Harrow and Heston, 1992,
26. Crime and Everyday Life, Felson, Marcus, , , Pine Forge, 1994,
27. Social Change and Crime Rate Trends, Cohen, Lawrence, and Marcus Felson, , , American Sociological Review,
28. Reducing Crime and Drug Dealing by Improving Place Management: A Randomized Experiment, Eck, John, and Julie Wartell, , , National Institute of Justice, ,
29. Comparative criminology, Barak-Glantz, I.L., E.H. Johnson, , , Sage, 1983,
Bibliography
★
Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology
★
Cesare Beccaria, ''
Dei delitti e delle pene'' (1763-1764)
★ Brantingham, P. J. & Brantingham, P. L. (1991). ''
Environmental Criminology''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
★ Barak, Gregg (ed.). (1998). ''
Integrative Criminology'' (International Library of Criminology, Criminal Justice & Penology.). Aldershot: Ashgate/Dartmouth. ISBN 1-84014-008-9
★
Pettit, Philip and
Braithwaite, John. ''Not Just Deserts. A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice'' ISBN13: 9780198240563 (see
Republican Criminology and Victim Advocacy: Comment for article concerning the book in ''
Law and Society Review'', Vol. 28, No. 4 (1995), pp. 765-776)
External links
★
National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS)
★
American Society of Criminology
★
Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC)
★
Criminology Mega-Site — Dr. Tom O'Connor (Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice, Austin Peay State University)
★
Stockholm Criminology Symposium
★
College of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Florida State University
★
The New Criminologist, the Professional Journal of Criminology
★
Criminology Timeline from Middlesex University
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