(Redirected from Cow)
'Cattle', colloquially referred to as 'cows', are
domesticated ungulates, a member of the
subfamily Bovinae of the
family Bovidae. They are raised as
livestock for meat (called
beef and
veal),
dairy products (
milk),
leather and as
draught animals (pulling
carts,
plows and the like). In some countries, such as
India, they are honored in religious ceremonies and revered. It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion head of cattle in the world today.
[1]
Species of cattle
Cattle were originally identified by
Carolus Linnaeus as three separate species. These were ''Bos taurus'', the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; ''Bos indicus'', the
zebu; and the extinct ''Bos primigenius'', the
aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and European cattle. More recently these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, with ''Bos primigenius taurus'', ''Bos primigenius indicus'' and ''Bos primigenius primigenius'' as the subspecies.
Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between European cattle and zebu but also with
yaks ("yattle"
[2]),
banteng,
gaur, and
bison ("
cattalo"), a cross-genera hybrid. For example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only humpless "''Bos taurus''-type" cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of European cattle, zebu and yak.
[3] Cattle cannot successfully be bred with
water buffalo or
African buffalo.
The aurochs was originally spread throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia. In historical times, their range was restricted to Europe, and the last animals were killed by poachers in
Masovia,
Poland, in 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate the original gene pool of the aurochs by careful crossing of commercial breeds, creating the
Heck cattle breed. (See
aurochs and
zebu articles for more information.)
Terminology
''Cattle'' did not originate as a name for
bovine animals. It derives from the Latin ''caput'', head, and originally meant movable property, especially livestock of any kind.
[4] The word is closely related to "
chattel" (a unit of personal property) and "
capital" in the economic sense.
[5][6]
Older English sources like
King James Version of the
Bible refer to livestock in general as cattle.
Additionally other species of the genus ''
Bos'' are often called cattle or wild cattle. This article refers to the common modern meaning of "cattle", the European domestic bovine.
''Cattle'' is not a plural, but a
mass noun. Thus one may refer to "some cattle", but not "three cattle". There is no universally used singular equivalent in modern English to "cattle" other than the various gender and age-specific terms (though 'catron' is occasionally seen as a half-serious proposal). The use of such a term is rare in the English language and hence a source of confusion. Strictly speaking, the singular noun for the domestic bovine is ''ox'': a bull is a male ox and a cow is a female ox. That this was once the standard name for domestic bovines is shown in place names such as
Oxford. But "ox" today is rarely used in this general sense, instead denoting the castrated male used as a beast of burden. For some time, "cow" has been in general use as a singular for the collective "cattle" in spite of the objections of cattlepersons. It is equivalent to "horse" or "dog" and is easy to use when a singular is needed and the gender is not known, as in "There is a cow in the road." (Females of other animals, such as whales or elephants, are also called cows). To denote a specific number of these animals without specifying their gender, a
measure word must be used, such as "ten head of cattle." The archaic plural of cow is "kine" or "kyne", which comes from the same English stem as "cow".
[7] Some
Australian,
Canadian,
New Zealand and
Scottish farmers use the term "cattle beast" or simply "beast". In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region) the local inhabitants call an individual animal a "beef critter". This was common until the 1960s and has faded from usage in all but a few areas and even then it is used mostly among the aged inhabitants.
Obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (horned oxen, from which "
neatsfoot oil" is derived), "beef" (young ox) and "beefing" (young animal fit for
slaughter). Cattle raised for human consumption are called "beef cattle". Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the "beef" (plural "beeves") is still used in its archaic sense for an animal of either gender. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called "
dairy cows".
Young cattle are called
calves. A young female before she has calved is called a "heifer"
[8][9] (
pronounced , "heffer"). A young female that has had only one calf is sometimes called a "first-calf heifer." A young male is a "bullock." The term "bullock," or "steer," is also used to denote a castrated male, unless kept for draft purposes, in which case it is called an "ox" (plural "oxen"), not to be confused with the related wild
musk ox. If castrated as an adult, it is called a "stag." An intact male is called a "bull." An adult female who has had more than two calves is called a "cow." The adjective applying to cattle is "bovine."
Biology
An Austrian cow
Cattle have one
stomach, with four compartments. They are the
rumen,
reticulum,
omasum, and
abomasum, the rumen being the largest compartment. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum, the smallest compartment, and this is where
hardware disease occurs. The reticulum is known as the "Honeycomb." The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "Many Plies." The abomasum is most like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "True Stomach".
Cattle are
ruminants, meaning that they have a
digestive system that allows them to utilize otherwise indigestible foods by repeatedly regurgitating and rechewing them as "cud." The
cud is then reswallowed and further digested by specialized microorganisms that live in the
rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for breaking down
cellulose and other carbohydrates into
volatile fatty acids (VFAs) that cattle use as their primary
metabolic fuel. The microbes that live inside of the rumen are also able to synthesize
amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources such as urea and ammonia. These features allow cattle to thrive on
grasses and other
vegetation.
Some of the microbes respire in the gut by an anaerobic process known as
methanogenesis (producing the gas
methane). Cattle emit a large amount of methane, 95% of it through eructation or
burping, not
flatulence.
[10] As the carbon in the methane comes from the digestion of vegetation produced by
photosynthesis, its release into the air by this process would normally be considered harmless, because there is no net increase in carbon in the atmosphere — it's removed as carbon dioxide from the air by photosynthesis and returned to it as methane. But methane is a more potent
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, having a warming effect 23 times greater
[11], and so the methane gas produced by livestock is a significant contributor to the increase in greenhouse gases.
[12] Research is underway on methods of reducing this source of methane, by the use to dietary supplements, or treatments to reduce the proportion of methanogenetic microbes, perhaps by vaccination.
[13]
The gestation period for a cow is nine months. A newborn calf weighs approximately 35-45kg. Very large steers can weigh as much as 4,000 pounds. Cows can live up to 25 years.
A common misconception about cattle, particularly bulls, is that they are enraged by the color red. This is incorrect, as cattle are mostly
color-blind[14] [15] [16]. The myth arose from the use of red capes in the sport of
bullfighting; in fact, two different capes are used. The
capote is a large, flowing cape that is magenta and yellow. The more famous
muleta is the smaller, red cape, used exclusively for the final, fatal segment of the fight. It is not the color of the cape that angers the bull, but rather the movement of the fabric that irritates the bull and incites it to charge
[14].
The colors blue and yellow are not visible to the cattle eyes.
Uses of cattle
Cow and calf
Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, domesticated since at least the early
Neolithic.
They are raised for
meat (
beef cattle),
milk (
dairy cattle), and
hides. They are also used as
draft animals and in certain
sports. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and
cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft.
In
Portugal,
Spain,
Southern France and some
Latin American countries, bulls are used in the
sport of
bullfighting while a similar sport,
Jallikattu, is seen in
South India; in many other countries this is illegal. Other sports such as
bull riding are seen as part of a
rodeo, especially in
North America.
Bull-leaping, a central ritual in
Bronze Age Minoan culture (see
Bull (mythology)), still exists in south-western
France.
The outbreaks of
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (
mad cow disease) have limited some traditional uses of cattle for food, for example the eating of brains or spinal cords.
In modern times, cattle are also entered into
agricultural competitions. These competitions can involve live cattle or carcasses.
Cattle husbandry
Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to
graze on the grasses of large tracts of
rangeland. Raising cattle in this manner allows the productive use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily
feeding, cleaning and
milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve
ear tagging,
dehorning, loading,
medical operations, vaccinations and
hoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. There are also some cultural differences in working with cattle- the cattle husbandry of Fulani men rests on
behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe cattle are controlled primarily by physical means like
fences.
[18]
Breeders can utilize cattle husbandry to reduce
M. bovis infection susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.
[19] Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, leather and they are sometimes used simply to maintain grassland for wildlife- for example, in
Epping Forest, England. They are often used in some of the most wild places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and semi desert. Modern cows are more commercial than older breeds and having become more specialized are less versatile. For this reason many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, like the dairy breed of cattle
Jersey.
Ox
'Oxen' (singular 'ox') are large and heavy set breeds of ''Bos taurus'' cattle trained as
draft animals. Often they are adult,
castrated males. Usually an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for
plowing,
transport, hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines,
irrigation by powering pumps, and
wagon drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low-impact select-cut logging. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as
carting. In the past, teams might have been larger, with some teams exceeding twenty animals when used for logging.
An ox is nothing more than a mature bovine with an "education." The education consists of the animal's learning to respond appropriately to the
teamster's (ox driver's) signals. These signals are given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks) and many
teamsters were known for their voices and language. In North America, the commands are (1) get up, (2) whoa, (3) back up, (4) gee (turn to the right) and (5) haw (turn to the left). Oxen must be painstakingly trained from a young age. Their teamster must make or buy as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow. A wooden
yoke is fastened about the neck of each pair so that the force of draft is distributed across their shoulders. From calves, oxen are chosen with horns since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back up, or slow down (particularly with a wheeled vehicle going downhill). Yoked oxen cannot slow a load like harnessed horses can; the load has to be controlled downhill by other means. The gait of the ox is often important to ox trainers, since the speed the animal walks should roughly match the gait of the ox driver who must work with it.
American ox trainers favored larger breeds for their ability to do more work and for their intelligence. Because they are larger animals, the typical ox is the male of a breed, rather than the smaller female. Females are potentially more useful producing calves and
milk.
Oxen can pull harder and longer than
horses, particularly on obstinate or almost un-movable loads. This is one of the reasons that teams were dragging logs from forests long after horses had taken over most other draught uses in Europe and North America. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed and do not try to jerk the load.
An "ox" is not a unique breed of bovine, nor have any "blue" oxen lived outside the
folk tales surrounding
Paul Bunyan, the mythical American logger. A possible exception and antecedent to this legend is the
Belgian Blue breed which is known primarily for its unusual musculature and at times exhibits unusual White/Blue, Blue Roan, or Blue coloration. The unusual musculature of the breed is believed to be due to a natural mutation of the gene that codes for the protein
Myostatin, which is responsible for normal muscle atrophy.
Many oxen are still in use worldwide, especially in
developing countries. In the
Third World oxen can lead lives of misery, as they are frequently malnourished. Oxen are driven with sticks and
goads when they are weak from
malnutrition. When there is insufficient food for humans,
animal welfare has low priority.
Cattle in religion, traditions and folklore
Legend of the founding of
Durham Cathedral is that monks carrying the body of
Saint Cuthbert were led to the location by a milk maid who had lost her
dun cow, which was found resting on the spot.
:''For the mythology and lore connected with the bull, see
Bull (mythology).''
★ The Evangelist
St. Luke is depicted as an ox in Christian art.
★ In
Judaism, as described in , the ashes of a sacrificed unblemished
red heifer that has never been yoked can be used for ritual purification of people who came into contact with a corpse.
★ The ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the
Chinese zodiac related to the
Chinese calendar. See:
Ox (Zodiac).
★ The constellation
Taurus represents a bull.
★ An apocryphal story has it that a cow started the
Great Chicago Fire by kicking over a
kerosene lamp. Michael Ahern, the reporter who created the cow story, admitted in 1893 that he had made it up because he thought it would make colorful copy.
★ On
February 18,
1930 Elm Farm Ollie became the first cow to fly in an
airplane and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane.
★ The first known law requiring branding in North America was enacted on
February 5,
1644 by Connecticut. It said that all cattle and pigs have to have a registered brand or earmark by
May 1, 1644.
[20]
★ The is a traditional toy from the
Aizu region of
Japan that is thought to ward off illness.
[21]
★ The case of ''
Sherwood v. Walker'' -- involving a supposedly barren heifer that was actually pregnant -- first enunciated the concept of
Mutual mistake as a means of destroying the
Meeting of the minds in
Contract law.
★ The Maasai tribe of East Africa traditionally believe that all cows on earth are the God-given property of the Maasai
Cattle in Hindu tradition
Main articles: Sacred cow
In
Hinduism, the cow is a symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, selfless giving and a full Earthly life.
Cows are venerated within the
Hindu religion of
India. According to
Vedic scripture they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother' because of the milk they provide; "The cow is my mother. The bull is my sire."
[22] They appear in numerous stories from the
Puranas and
Vedas, for example the deity
Krishna is brought up in a family of cowherders, and given the name
Govinda (protector of the cows). Also
Shiva is traditionally said to ride on the back of a bull named
Nandi. Bulls in particular are seen as a symbolic emblem of selfless
duty and
religion. In ancient rural India every household had a few cows which provided a constant supply of milk and a few bulls that helped as draft animals. Many Hindus feel that at least it was economically wise to keep cattle for their milk rather than consume their flesh for one single meal.
Gandhi explains his feelings about cow protection as follows:
"The cow to me means the entire sub-human world, extending man’s sympathies beyond his own species. Man through the cow is enjoined to realize his identity with all that lives. Why the ancient rishis selected the cow for apotheosis is obvious to me. The cow in India was the best comparison; she was the giver of plenty. Not only did she give milk, but she also made agriculture possible. The cow is a poem of pity; one reads pity in the gentle animal. She is the second mother to millions of mankind. Protection of the cow means protection of the whole dumb creation of God. The appeal of the lower order of creation is all the more forceful because it is speechless."
In heraldry
Cattle are represented in
heraldry by the 'bull'.
Present status
The world cattle population is estimated to be about 1.3 billion head.
India is the nation with the largest number of cattle, about 400 million, followed by
Brazil and
China, with about 150 million each, and the
United States, with about 100 million.
Africa has about 200 million head of cattle, many of which are herded in traditional ways and serve largely as tokens of their owners' wealth.
Europe has about 130 million head of cattle (CT 2006, SC 2006).
Cattle today are the basis of a many billion dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and represented only 23 percent of world beef production. (Clay 2004). The production of
milk, which is also made into
cheese,
butter,
yogurt, and other dairy products, is comparable in size to beef production and provides an important part of the food supply for much of the world's people. Cattle hides, used for
leather to make
shoes and
clothing, are another important product. In India and other poorer nations, cattle are also important as draft animals as they have been for thousands of years.
Concerns have been expressed about the impact of cattle on the environment.
Pasture land for cattle grazing is now the largest agricultural land use world-wide. The conversion of natural environments to pasture land has threatened native
plants and
animals in many places; this is especially a problem in Brazil where large areas of
rainforest are being cut down for cattle pasture. Cattle naturally produce
methane gas though their digestive process and, because of their large numbers, this is thought to contribute to the process of
global warming. Cattle keeping also can contribute to
water pollution,
air pollution, and
soil degradation (Clay 2004).
Feral cattle, domestic cattle which have returned to the wild, are also an environmental problem in many places (ISSG 2005).
Environmental Impact
Cattle are "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases, more than cars, planes and all other forms of transport put together," states a 400-page United Nations report from the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
[2] Cattle are blamed for a host of other environmental crimes, from acid rain to the introduction of alien species, from producing deserts to creating dead zones in the oceans, from poisoning rivers and drinking water to destroying coral reefs.
A related study at the University of Chicago
[3] suggests that eliminating meat and dairy from your diet saves 1.5 tons of greenhouse gases from being emitted each year - contrast that with the meager 1 ton of greenhouse gases saved annually by driving a hybrid car. The University of Chicago study suggests that reducing meat consumption - even going from 2 burgers a week to 1 - is the best way consumers can act to slow down climate change.
The UN report calls cattle the greatest threat to the climate, forests and wildlife. Here's why. [
[4]]
# Climate Change: Burning fuel to produce fertilizer to grow feed, to produce meat and to transport it - and clearing vegetation for grazing - produces 9 per cent of all emissions of carbon dioxide, the most common greenhouse gas. And their wind and manure emit more than one third of emissions of another, methane, which warms the world 20 times faster than carbon dioxide.
# Acid Rain: Livestock also produces more than 100 other polluting gases, including more than two-thirds of the world's emissions of ammonia, one of the main causes of acid rain.
# Deforestation: "Ranching is the major driver of deforestation" worldwide, and overgrazing is turning a fifth of all pastures and ranges into desert."
# Water Pollution: The pollution from the vast herds of cows washes down to the sea, killing coral reefs and creating and adding to "
dead zones" devoid of life. One is up to 21,000sqkm, in the Gulf of Mexico, where much of the waste from US beef production is carried down the Mississippi. This waste also includes pesticides, antibiotics and hormones used to treat cows in which end up in our drinking water and endanger human health.
# Water Shortages: Beef production alone uses more water than is consumed in growing the nation's entire fruit and vegetable crop. Producing a single hamburger patty uses enough fuel to drive 20 miles and causes the loss of five times its weight in topsoil. In his book The Food Revolution, author John Robbins
[5] estimates that "you'd save more water by not eating a pound of California beef than you would by not showering for an entire year." Because of deforestation to create grazing land, each vegetarian saves an acre of trees per year.
[6] Now the UN report has found that it takes a staggering 990 litres of water to produce one litre of milk.
[7]
It takes 4.8 pounds of grain fed to cattle to produce one pound of beef for human beings, this represents a colossal waste of resources and is a main reason for deforestation.
[8]
The report, entitled Livestock's Long Shadow, also surveys the damage done by sheep, chickens, pigs and goats. But in almost every case, the world's 1.5 billion cattle are most to blame. The report concludes that, unless drastic changes are made, the massive damage done by livestock will more than double by 2050, as demand for meat increases.
Gallery
See also
★
Aurochs (
extinct)
★
Barbed wire
★
Bull
★
Bull-baiting
★
Bull-leaping
★
Bullfighting
★
Bull (mythology)
★
Cattle age determination
★
Cattle judging
★
Cowboy
★
Cow tipping
★
Factory farming
★
Grass fed beef
★
List of breeds of cattle
★
List of domesticated animals
★
Ox (zodiac)
★
Sacred cow
★
Sleep in nonhumans
★
Yak
References
1. http://cattle-today.com/
2. Mummolo, Jonathan. (August 11 2007) Washington Post ''[1]'' ''Yattle What? Two Farmers Raising Cow-Yak Hybrids Are Curious to See Who'll Bite.'' Section: Metro; Page 1B.
3. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Nepalese domestic dwarf cattle Lulu, , Kumiko, Takeda, Animal Science Journal,
4. Cattle
5. Chattel
6. Capital
7. Kine
8. Definition of heifer
9.
Pioneer Girl: Growing Up on the Prairie
10. "Bovine belching called udderly serious gas problem." ''Los Angeles Times'', Sunday, July 13, 2003
11. (pie charts)
12. Spencer Weart: ''The Discovery of Global Warming'': "Other Greenhouse Gases". June 2007.
13. Triad bid to stop belching
14. http://www.beef-cattle.com/beef-cattle-biology-and-terminology.htm
15. http://www.itla.net/index.cfm?sec=Longhorn_Information&con=handling
16. http://iacuc.tennessee.edu/pdf/Policies-AnimalCare/Cattle-BasicCare.pdf
17. http://www.beef-cattle.com/beef-cattle-biology-and-terminology.htm
18. Applied ethology in a nomadic cattle culture, , Dale F., Lott, Applied Animal Ethology,
19.
20. Famous First Facts, , J., Kane, H.W. Wilson, 1997, ISBN 0-8242-0930-3
21. Madden, Thomas (May 1992). "Akabeko". ''OUTLOOK''. Online copy accessed 18 January 2007.
22. Mahabharata, Book 13-Anusasana Parva, Section LXXVI
★ Bhattacharya, S. 2003.
Cattle ownership makes it a man's world. ''Newscientist.com''. Retrieved December 26, 2006.
★ Cattle Today (CT). 2006. Website.
Breeds of cattle. ''Cattle Today''. Retrieved December 26, 2006)
★ Clay, J. 2004. ''World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices''. Washington, D.C., USA: Island Press. ISBN 1559633700.
★ Clutton-Brock, J. 1999. ''A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals''. Cambridge UK : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634954.
★ Huffman, B. 2006.
''The ultimate ungulate page''. ''UltimateUngulate.com''. Retrieved December 26, 2006.
★ Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). 2005. .
''Bos taurus''. ''Global Invasive Species Database''.
★ Nowak, R.M. and Paradiso, J.L. 1983. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801825253
★ Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006.
''Breeds of Cattle''. Retrieved January 5, 2007.
★ Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 2004.
Holy cow. ''PBS Nature''. Retrieved January 5, 2007.
★ Rath, S. 1998. ''The Complete Cow''. Stillwater, Minnesota, USA: Voyageur Press. ISBN 0896583759.
★ Raudiansky, S. 1992. ''The Covenant of the Wild''. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. ISBN 0688096107.
★ Spectrum Commodities (SC). 2006.
Live cattle. ''Spectrumcommodities.com''. Retrieved January 5, 2007.
★ Voelker, W. 1986. ''The Natural History of Living Mammals''. Medford, New Jersey, USA: Plexus Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0937548081.
★ Yogananda, P. 1946. ''The Autobiography of a Yogi''. Los Angeles, California, USA: Self Realization Fellowship. ISBN 0876120834.
External links
★
Cowhq: A site dedicated to cows and cow information
★
La Fratta, Italian Chianina cattle breeders - Sinalunga, Siena, Italy
★
Western Watersheds Project - Cows versus Conservation
★
Cattle Breeds website - Oklahoma State University
★
Cattle.com - Comprehensive Beef Portal
★
PBS Nature: Holy Cow (about cows in general)
★
UK Lincoln Red Cattle Society
★
SearchCattle.com - Specialized Cattle Search Engine
★
Photo Gallery with Images of Cattle
★
Prairie Ox Drovers -Information, help, and encouragement to get started with oxen.
★
"Do McDonald's milkshakes contain seaweed?", The Straight Dope, 27-Nov-1992
★
The Cattle Pages - Directory of information, cattle associations, and cattle breeders
★
"45 Fun Facts About Cows"
★
Mumu, cow cattle virtual museum
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