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'Collegiate wrestling' (sometimes known as 'scholastic wrestling' or 'folkstyle wrestling') is the commonly-used name of amateur wrestling practiced at the college and university level in the United States. A very similar style is practiced at the high school and middle school levels, and also for younger participants. The term is used to distinguish the styles of wrestling used other parts of the world, and from those of the Olympic Games: Freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling.
Collegiate wrestling, like its international counterpart, freestyle wrestling, has its origins in catch-as-catch-can wrestling and both have the prime victory condition of the wrestler winning by pinning his opponent on the mat. Yet collegiate wrestling has had so many influences from the wide variety of folk wrestling styles brought into the country that it has become distinctly American.
'Folkstyle wrestling' also refers to the indigenous styles in various other countries. For example, Böke can accurately be described as Mongolia's folkstyle.

Contents

Contrast with the International Styles

History

American Wrestling in the Early Colonial Era

Wrestling in the 18th and 19th century United States

The 20th Century: American Wrestling becomes "Collegiate"

College Weight Classes

Match Format

Layout of the Mat

Equipment

The Match

Scoring

Victory Conditions in Collegiate Wrestling

High School Level

Folkstyle - Age-group Level

See also

Notes

References

External links

Contrast with the International Styles

Collegiate wrestling differs in a number of ways from Freestyle and Greco-Roman:

★ Scoring differences - for example, in collegiate wrestling, points are not given for forcing the opponent's shoulders to quickly rotate through facing the mat. Instead, for example, one of the opponent's shoulders must be held on the mat and the other of the opponent's shoulders forced within at an angle of 45 degrees or less from the mat for 2-5 seconds to score. The points generated in this situation are called "near fall points." This shows a difference in focus: while the international styles encourage explosive action, collegiate wrestling encourages and rewards control over the opponent. A wrestler can win the match by pinning both of his opponent's shoulders or scapulae (shoulder blades) to the mat. Since 1915, collegiate wrestling officials have recorded the time that each participant had control of his opponent on the mat. Early on, this was the major way to determine the winner in the absence of a fall. Over time, the significance of such timekeeping has declined, and now such "time advantage" counts for one point in college competition at the most.^[1]

★ An additional position for periods after the first period, and various other situations. All three styles begin a match with both wrestlers facing each other on their feet with the opportunity given to both to score a takedown (force the opponent to the mat and into an inferior position). In collegiate wrestling, once a takedown is scored, the wrestler in the inferior (defensive or bottom) position remains there until he escapes the hold, the period ends, or various penalty situations occur. The inferior position is similar to a choice for a starting position of the second and third periods, where it is called the ''referee's position'' (equivalent to the "par terre" position in the international wrestling styles). By choosing the bottom place in the referee's position, the wrestler has the advantage of greater scoring possibility, as escaping is easier than scoring a takedown from the neutral position or scoring near fall points from the superior position. In the international styles, where the escape point was difficult to achieve and is now no longer awarded, the inferior position is used to penalize a wrestler who has committed an illegal act.

★ De-emphasis on "throws", or maneuvers where the other wrestler is taken off his feet, through the air to land on his back or shoulders. The de-emphasis on throws is another example of how collegiate wrestling emphasizes dominance or control, as opposed to the element of risk. A throw is awarded the same amount of points as any other takedown, whereas the international styles will award additional points for throws, especially those of great amplitude. However, many collegiate wrestlers still incorporate some throws into their repertoire of moves because a thrown opponent often lands in a position more conducive to producing a pin. In the international styles, a well-executed throw can win the period, whereas in collegiate wrestling, it will be worth only two points and in some age groups may even be illegal. However, the throw can land the opposing wrestler on his back, resulting in a pin or near fall points.
Rather than lifting the opponent or throwing him for great amplitude in order to win the period in the international styles, the collegiate wrestler most often seeks to take his opponent down to the mat and perform a "breakdown" (that is, to get his opponent in the defensive position flat on his stomach). The offensive collegiate wrestler would then seek to tire him out by "riding" (controlling the legs and arms in the offensive position on top), for example. With strategies such as that, the collegiate wrestler is then more likely to turn his opponent over for a pin (or fall). The defensive wrestler could counter such attempts for a takedown, or when once taken down try to escape his opponent's control or reverse control altogether. In a last ditch attempt to foil a pin, the defensive wrestler could also "bridge" or pry both his feet and his back up and then turn toward his stomach. Overall, a collegiate wrestler would most likely emphasize physical control and dominance over the opponent on the mat in his techniques.

History

Main articles: History of Collegiate wrestling

American Wrestling in the Early Colonial Era

There were already wrestling styles among Native Americans varying from tribe and nation by the 15th and 16th centuries, when the first Europeans settled. The English and French who settled on the North American continent sought out wrestling as a popular pastime. Soon, there were local champions in every settlement, with contests between them on a regional level. The colonists in what would become the United States started out with something more akin to Greco-Roman wrestling, but soon found that style too restrictive in favor of a style which a greater allowance of holds.^[2]
The Irish were known for their "collar-and-elbow" style, in which wrestlers at the start of the match would grasp each other by the collar with one hand and by the elbow with the other. From this position, wrestlers sought to achieve a fall. If no fall occurred, the wrestlers would continue grappling both standing on their feet and on the ground until a fall was made. Irish immigrants later brought this style to the United States where it soon became widespread. There was also what became known as "catch-as-catch-can" wrestling, which had a particular following in Great Britain and the variant developed in Lancashire had a particular effect on future freestyle wrestling in particular.^[3]

Wrestling in the 18th and 19th century United States

By the 18th century, wrestling soon became recgonized as a legitimate spectator sport, despite its roughness.^[2] Among those who were well known for their wrestling techniques were several U.S. Presidents. Since "catch-as-catch-can" wrestling was very similar, it gained great popularity in fairs and festivals in the United States during the 19th century.^[3] The collar-and-elbow style was also refined by later Irish immigrants, and gained great ground because of the success of George William Flagg from Vermont, the wrestling champion of the Army of the Potomac. After the Civil War, freestyle wrestling began to emerge as a distinct sport, and soon spread rapidly in the United States. Professional wrestling also emerged in the late 19th century (not like the "sports-entertainment" seen today).^[3] By the 1880s, American wrestling became organized, with matches often being conducted alongside gymnastic meets and boxing tournaments in athletic clubs.^[2] The growth of cities, industrialization, and the closing of the frontier provided the necessary avenue for sports such as wrestling to increase in popularity.^[3]

The 20th Century: American Wrestling becomes "Collegiate"

In 1900, the first intercollegiate dual meet took place between Yale University and the University of Pennsylvania.^[9][10] The Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association held its first tournament in 1905, which soon sparked many more wrestling tournaments for both college and university students and high school students.^[11] Edward Clark Gallagher, a football and track and field athlete at Oklahoma A & M College (now Oklahoma State University, launched wrestling as an official varsity sport just before World War I and with his team launched a dynasty, with undefeated matches from 1921-1931.^[2] In 1927, Clapp published the rules for collegiate wreslting, and the next year, the first NCAA Wrestling Team Championship took place on March 30 to March 31 on the campus of Iowa State College. The rules of collegiate wrestling marked a sharp contrast to the freestyle wrestling rules of the International Amateur Wrestling Federation (IAWF) and the AAU.^[11] From then on, collegiate wrestling emerged as a distinctly American sport.
For most of the 20th century, collegiate wrestling was the most popular form of amateur wrestling in the country, especially in the Midwest and the Southwest.^[2] The 1960s and 1970s saw major developments in collegiate wrestling, with the emergence of the United States Wrestling Federation (USWF) (now known as USA Wrestling (USAW)). The USWF, with its membership of coaches, educators, and officials, became recognized eventually as the official governing body of American wrestling and as the official representative to the United States Olympic Committee, in place of the Amateur Athletic Union.^[15]
Today, on the collegiate level, several universities are known for regularly having competitive wrestling teams. The Iowa Hawkeyes (University of Iowa) wrestling team, Oklahoma State Cowboys wrestling team, and the Minnesota (University of Minnesota) Golden Gophers wrestling team are three of the most storied and honored programs in the country. Collegiate wrestling teams compete for the NCAA wrestling championship each year. The NCAA awards individual championships in the 10 weight classes, as well as a team title.

College Weight Classes

Main articles: Wrestling weight classes

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) largely regulates college-level wrestling and generally sets the standard for weight classes for college-level dual meets, multiple duals, and tournaments. A wrestler must normally be weighed in before the first official team practice for his minimum weight class. Then, the wrestler may not compete below that weight class and may not compete at one weight class higher than his minumum weight. If a wrestler does gain weight over his certified weight class and wrestles at a higher class, he forfeits his previous lowest weight class for another one. Weight certifications, weight management plans, and hydration tests have been instituted in order to protect the wrestler's health.^[16] There are currently 10 main weight classes currently open to college-level competition, ranging from 125 lb to the Heavyweight division of 183 to 285 lb.^[16] Also, there is a 235 lb weight class, which only the National Collegiate Wrestling Association (NCWA), the organization that governs college wrestling for institutions outside of the NCAA, NAIA, and NJCAA, currently allows that ranges from 184-235 lb.^[18]

Match Format

A bout between two wrestlers of the same weight class is called a 'match'. It consists of three periods, with an overtime round if necessary if the score is tied at the end of regulation. Each period lasts from one to three minutes depending on the age group of the competitors. Period lengths vary for age groups below high school and are different from state to state.
Normally, two different colleges or universities would compete in what is known as a 'dual meet'. It is possible for there also to be a 'multiple dual', where more than two wrestling teams compete against each other at the same event on the same day. For example, one college wrestling team may face another wrestling team for the first dual, and then a third wrestling team for the second dual. Also, those two wrestling teams may compete against each other in a dual meet as well. In all cases, after weigh-ins, wrestling matches usually proceed from the lowest to the highest weight class, unless the coaches by mutual decision or random draw choose a particular weight class to be featured first. In that case, the succeeding wrestling matches will follow in sequence. (For example, if the 157 lb weight class competes first, the succeeding wrestling matches will follow until the heavyweight class. Then, beginning at 125 lb, the rest of the matches will follow until the 149 lb match.)^[16]

Layout of the Mat

The match takes place on a thick rubber 'mat' that is shock-absorbing to ensure safety. A large 'outer circle' about 32 to 42 feet in diameter that designates the wrestling area is marked on the mat. The circumference line of that circle is called the 'boundary line'. The wrestling area is surrounded by a mat area or apron that is at least five inches in width. The mat area is designated by the use of contrasting colors or a two-inch wide line, which is part of the wrestling area and included in bounds. The wrestlers are within bounds when at least one wrestler's supporting points (the weight-bearing points of the body, such as the feet, hands, knees, buttocks, etc.) are within this boundary line.^[16]
The mat can be no thicker than four inches nor thinner than a "two-inch thick hair-felt mat." Inside the outer circle is usually an 'inner circle' about 10 feet in diameter. Wrestlers are encouraged to stay within this inner circle or else they risk being penalized for stalling (that is, deliberately attempting to slow down the action of the match). Each wrestler begins action at a 'starting line' inside the inner circle that is three feet long. Two one-inch lines close the ends of the starting lines and are marked red for the wrestler from the visiting team and green for the wrestler from the home team.^[16] Surrounding the outer circle is a protection area that helps prevent injury. Additional padding may be added under the mat to protect the wrestlers.^[16]
For high school athletes and older, the wrestling area is 32 to 42 feet in diameter. For younger age groups, one mat may be divided into halves or quarters so that multiple matches may be staged on a single mat. The two starting lines are 10 inches apart from each other and form a rectangle in the middle of the wrestling area. This rectangle designates the starting positions for the 3 periods.^[16]

Equipment

★ A 'singlet' is a one-piece wrestling garment made of spandex that should provide a tight and comfortable fit for the wrestler. It is made from nylon or lycra and prevents an opponent from using anything on the wrestler as leverage, although it is not required. The singlets are usually light or dark depending on whether the wrestlers are competing at home or abroad, and they are usually designed according to the school or club's team colors. Recently, some college wrestlers have begun to wear short-sleeved, tight-fitting shirts with accompanying shorts made out of spandex or lycra.^[16] Wrestlers also have the option of wearing 'leggings' with their singlets.

★ A special pair of 'shoes' is worn by a wrestler to increase his mobility and flexibility. Wrestling shoes are light and flexible in order to provide maximum comfort and movement. Usually made with rubber soles, they help give the wrestler's feet a better grip on the mat.^[16]

★ 'Headgear', equipment worn around the ears to protect the wrestler, is mandatory in collegiate (scholastic or folkstyle) wrestling.^[16] This is done to decrease the participant's own risk for injury, as there is the potential to develop cauliflower ear.

★ In addition, special equipment, such as 'face masks', 'braces', 'mouthguards', 'hair coverings', 'knee pads', or 'armbands' may be worn by either wrestler. Anything worn that prevents normal movement or execution of holds is prohibited.^[16]

The Match

The main official at the wrestling match is the 'referee', who is responsible for starting and stopping the match; observing all holds; signaling points; calling penalties such as illegal holds, unnecessary roughness, fleeing the mat, or flagrant misconduct; and finally observing a full view of and determining the pin (or fall).^[16] There is also usually at least one 'assistant referee'.^[16] Also, 'scorers' and 'timekeepers' may be present to record the points of the two individual wrestlers and note the match time and timeouts (and time advantage), respectively.^[16]

★ 'Pre-match'
Each wrestler puts on a green (for the home team) or red (for the visiting team) anklet about three inches wide which the referee will use to indicate scoring.^[16]

★ 'First Period'
The first period begins with both wrestlers in the 'neutral (standing) position'. The neutral position has the two wrestlers facing each other on their feet with a slight crouch with their arms in from of them at or above waist level.^[32] Each wrestler starts with a foot on opposite sides of the starting rectangle. The referee then asks both wrestlers to shake hands, and then signals the start of the match by blowing his whistle. The match commences with each wrestler attempting to ''takedown'' his opponent. The first period in collegiate wrestling for colleges and universities is three minutes long.^[16] In high school varsity matches, the first period is two minutes long.

★ 'Second Period'
After the first period ends, the referee will flip a coin to determine who gets to choose the starting position of the second period. There are a variety of choices. The wrestler could choose between the neutral (standing) position, or as is most commonly chosen to begin in a place called the 'referee's position'. This is where both wrestlers begin action at the center of the mat with one wrestler (on the defensive) on the bottom with his hands and knees spread apart and his legs held together on the mat and the other (on the offensive) on the top kneeling beside him with one arm wrapped around the bottom wrestler's waist and the other hand on the opponent's near elbow for control.^[16][35] Most often, the wrestler with the choice chooses the top position, although he could choose the bottom position if he wished. The wrestler could also defer his choice to the beginning of the third period.
More recently, another starting position has been allowed, known as the 'optional start'. After the offensive wrestler indicates his intention to the referee, the referee lets the defensive wrestler adjust and begin in the same manner as in the referee's position. The offensive wrestler then stands behind and places his both his hands on the opponent's back between his neck and his waist (usually in a diamond shape). When the referee starts the action by blowing the whistle, the defensive wrestler then has the opportunity to get back to his feet in a neutral (standing) position.^[16] Customarily, the defensive wrestler is then awarded a point for an escape. Any of the starting positions may be used to resume action during a period when the wrestlers go off the mat, depending on the referee's judgment as to whether any or which wrestler had the advantage.^[35]
The second period is two minutes long.^[16]

★ 'Third Period'
The wrestler who did not choose the starting position for the second period now chooses the starting position. This period is also two minutes long.^[16]

★ 'First Overtime Period or Sudden Victory'
If the third period ends in a tie, a one minute sudden death overtime period is used. Both wrestlers start in the neutral (standing) position. The first wrestler to score a point wins.^[16]

★ 'Second Overtime Period'
If no points are scored in the first overtime period, a 30 second each (one minute total) second overtime period is used. Both wrestlers start in the referee's position. The wrestler who scored the first points in the match has the choice of top or bottom position. The two contestants then wrestle. Either of the two wrestlers must try to score as many points as they can. Once the 30 second half-period is over, the wrestler who was in the bottom position then wrestles on the top in another 30 second half-period. Whoever scores the most points wins the match.^[16]

★ 'Third Overtime Period or Ultimate Tiebreaker'
If no points were scored or the score is still tied after the second overtime period, a final third overtime period is used. This overtime last for 30 seconds. Both wrestlers also start in the referee's position. Again, the wrestler who scored the first points in the match has the choice of top or bottom position. The person in the bottom position then must escape to get the win. If the wrestler in the top position rides the bottom wrestler the entire 30 seconds and does not let that wrestler up, he wins.
- In college, there is no sudden death third overtime. The third overtime is only for high school, and is meant to supplement the second overtime. On the college level, if no wrestler has won by the end of the second overtime, the overtime round starts over again (first one minute sudden death overtime, and then two 30-second overtime periods for each wrestler) until one wrestler gains points for the victory.^[16]

Scoring

Points are awarded when a wrestler gains a certain level of control is gained over his opponent. In general, the wrestler has to be controlling his opponent's hips in order for the referee to determine that you have gained control of your opponent. Scoring can be accomplished in the following ways:


★ 'Takedown' (2 points) - From the neutral position, one wrestler brings the other down onto the mat and establishes control over him. This is most often accomplished by attacking the legs of the opponent, although various throws can also be used to bring a wrestler down to the mat.^[16]

★ 'Escape' (1 point) - A wrestler who is being controlled on the bottom manages to escape from his opponent and gets on his feet into the neutral position.^[16]

★ 'Reversal' (2 points) - A wrestler who is being controlled on the bottom in the defensive reverses control from his opponent.^[16]

★ 'Near Fall' (2 point version) - A wrestler exposes his opponent's back to the mat for two to four seconds.^[16]
Near fall criteria is met when: (1) the offensive wrestler holds the defensive wrestler in a high bridge or on both elbows; (2) the offensive wrestler holds any part of both his opponent's shoulders or scapulae (shoulder blades) within four inches of the mat; or (3) the offensive wrestler controls the defensive wrestler in such a way that one of the bottom wrestler's shoulders or scapulae, or the head, is touching the mat, and the other shoulder or scapula is held at an angle of 45 degrees or less to the mat.^[16] The referee counts the seconds off.^[16] Near fall points are also known as "back points." The near fall was formerly known as ''predicament'' in college wrestling.^[49]
Two points can also be granted in cases where a pinning combination is executed legally and a near fall is imminent, but the defensive wrestler is injured, signals an injury, or bleeds excessively before the near fall criterion is met.^[16]


★ 'Near Fall' (3 point version) - A wrestler exposes his opponent's back to the mat for five seconds or more, meeting the same criteria as the two point version of the near fall. After five seconds, the referee awards three points and stops counting.^[16]
When a near fall criterion is met that is between two and four seconds, and the defensive wrestler is injured, indicates an injury, or bleeds excessively, three points are also awarded.^[16]

★ 'Near Fall' (4 point version) - Four points are awarded in cases where a criterion for a near fall is met for five seconds, and the defensive wrestler is injured, indicates an injury, or bleeds excessively.^[16]

★ 'Penalty' (1 or 2 points) - A point can be awarded by the referee to the opponent for various penalty situations, such as illegal holds, technical violations, or stalling. With some situations, a warning is given after the first occurennce, and if there is another occurrence the penalty point is given. In other situations, there is no warning and penalty points are automatically given. In general, after a certain number of occurrences where penalty points are given, the penalized wrestler is disqualified. A fuller treatment of the situations in which penalty points are awarded is found here and here on pages WR75 to WR78.

★ 'Time Advantage' (or 'Riding Time') (1 point) - Whenever a wrestler is controlling an opponent on the mat in such a way that prevents an escape or a reversal, he is gaining time advantage (or riding time). A timekeeper then records the time advantange of each wrestler throughout the match. At the end of the third period, one point is awarded to the wrestler with the greatest time advantage, provided that the difference between the two wrestlers is more than a minute. Points for time advantage are only awarded in college competition.^[16]

Victory Conditions in Collegiate Wrestling

The object of the entire wrestling match is to attain victory by what is known as the 'pin' or 'fall'. A 'pin' occurs when a wrestler holds any part of both his opponent's shoulders or scapulae (shoulder blades) on the mat for one full second at the college level^[16] or two full seconds at the high school and lower levels. A pin ends the match immediately, and the offensive wrestler who held the pin is declared the winner. Pins can be attained in many different ways. The most common way of getting the pin is through the various nelson holds, in particular, the half nelson. Other techniques used to get falls are ''cradles'', the ''headlock'' (''head and arm''), single or double ''armbars'' (''bar arms''), the ''"back bow"'' and ''leg turk'', the ''reverse body lock'', the ''guillotine'', the ''leg split'' (also known as the ''banana split'' or ''spread eagle''), the ''spladle'', the ''figure-4 to the head'', the ''straight body scissors'', and the ''double grapevine'' (also called the ''Saturday night ride''). On the college level in a 'dual meet' (a competition in which wrestlers from two college or university teams face each other), the fall would be awarded with six points for the winning team.^[16]
A 'technical fall' is also possible once a deficit of 15 points is achieved.^[16] A technical fall is very likely when one wrestler has great control over the other and is able to score near fall points. If the wrestler in control is unable to score a pin, the match ends once an imminent pinning situation is no longer seen by the referee or when the wrestlers return to the neutral position. On the college-level, if the technical fall occurred with near fall points for the winner during the match, five team points are awarded. If the technical fall occurred with no near fall points for the winner, four team points are awarded.^[16]
If no fall or technical fall occurs, a wrestler can also win simply by points. If a wrestler wins by eight or more points, but under the 15 points needed for a technical fall, the win is known as a 'major decision'.^[16] This is worth four team points in a dual meet.^[16] If the wrestler wins by less than eight points, or wins the first point in a sudden victory overtime period without gaining a fall, default, or a win by an opponent's disqualification, the wrestler then wins by 'decision'^[16], worth three team points.^[16]
If for any reason, a wrestler is unable to continue competing during the match, his opponent is awarded victory by 'default'^[16], worth six team points in a dual meet.^[16] If a wrestler is barred from competing further in a match by virtue of acquiring penalties or for flagrant misconduct, his opponent wins by 'disqualification'.^[16], again worth six teams points in a dual meet.^[16] A wrestler also may gain a victory by 'forfeit'^[16], meaning that the other wrestler for some reason fails to appear on the mat at the start of the match. The wrestler could also win by a 'medical forfeit'^[16] if for some reason his opponent becomes ill or injured during the course of the match. Both victory by forfeit and medical forfeit are worth six team points in a dual meet.^[16] For a wrestler to win by forfeit or medical forfeit however, he must appear on the mat in a wrestling uniform. In a dual meet, when all team points are totaled, the team with the most points wins the competition.
Often, many colleges and universities in the United States will compete with their teams in what is known as a 'tournament'. In the tournament, from eight, 16, 32, to as many as 64 individual wrestlers can compete. This allows many schools to establish their rankings, not only for individual student-wrestlers, but also for college and university wrestling teams as a whole (e.g. the NCAA Wrestling Team Championship). In the tournament, most of the points are scored on the individual level for placement, for example, in a tournament scoring eight places, the winner of a quarterfinal in the championship bracket (where first and second places are awarded) would win six place points. In the wrestleback bracket (where third and fifth places are awarded), the winner of a semifinal match, for example, would receive three place points. Teams are usually awarded one point for every victory in the championship bracket, and one half-point for every victory in the wrestleback bracket. Thus, whole teams are awarded placements (first, second, etc.) based on their total number of victories. A more detailed account of how individual and team points for tournaments are awarded is given here on pages WR60-WR62.

High School Level

Main articles: Scholastic wrestling

Also known as 'scholastic wrestling' when practiced at the high school and middle school (junior high) level, collegiate wrestling is practiced with a few differences at the high school level. Scholastic wrestling is regulated by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). High school matches are one minute shorter - not having college's three-minute first period. Additionally, college wrestling uses the concept of "time advantage" or "riding time," while high school wrestling does not.

Folkstyle - Age-group Level

Main articles: Scholastic wrestling

At young ages, independent tournaments are often run in the Freestyle and Greco-Roman styles. There are also tournaments where wrestlers compete in a style very similar to collegiate or high school (scholastic) wrestling. To differentiate this style from Freestyle and Greco-Roman, the term 'folkstyle wrestling' is more commonly used term than collegiate.

See also

★ Amateur wrestling

★ Folk wrestling

★ Freestyle wrestling

★ Greco-Roman wrestling

Notes

1. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, p. 1192, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
2. Wrestling In The USA

3. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, p. 1190, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
4. Wrestling In The USA

5. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, p. 1190, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
6. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, p. 1190, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
7. Wrestling In The USA

8. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, p. 1190, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
9. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, pp. 1190-1191, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
10. No. 6359 from ''Famous First Facts About Sports'' by Irene M. Franck and David M. Brownstone, p. 305 (New York, NY: The H.W. Wilson Company, 2001).
11. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, p. 1191, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
12. Wrestling In The USA

13. "Wrestling, Freestyle" by Michael B. Poliakoff from ''Encyclopedia of World Sport: From Ancient Times to the Present'', Vol. 3, p. 1191, eds. David Levinson and Karen Christensen (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1996).
14. Wrestling In The USA

15. Changing of the Guard

16. 2008 Wrestling Rules

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18. 2006-07 Wrestling Plan

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32. ''Webster's Sports Dictionary'', p. 282, (Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co. (now Merriam-Webster), 1976).
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35. ''Webster's Sports Dictionary'', p. 348, (Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co. (now Merriam-Webster), 1976).
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37. ''Webster's Sports Dictionary'', p. 348, (Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co. (now Merriam-Webster), 1976).
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49. ''Webster's Sports Dictionary'', pp. 279-280, (Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co. (now Merriam-Webster), 1976).
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References

★ Webster's Sports Dictionary, , , G. & C. Merriam Company (now Merriam-Webster), G. & C. Merriam Company (now Merriam-Webster), , ISBN 0877790671

★ Sports in the Western World, , William J., Baker, Rowman and Littlefield, 1982, ISBN0847670759

★ Famous First Facts About Sports, , David M., Brownstone, The H.W. Wilson Company, 2001, ISBN0824209737

★ NCAA: The Voice of College Sports: A Diamond Anniversary History, 1906-1981, , Jack, Falla, National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1981, ISBN091350470X

★

External links

★ National Collegiate Athletic Association Wrestling

★ National Collegiate Wrestling Association

★ National Wrestling Coaches Association

★ National Federation of State High School Associations Wrestling

★ USA Wrestling

★ Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) Wrestling

★ National Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum (Stillwater, OK)

★ Referee's Signals for Both High School and College Wrestling

★ High School Wrestling Scorers' and Timers' Instructions

★ InterMat Wrestling

★ College Wrestling News