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A 'degree' is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study.

Contents

History

Examples of degrees

Degree systems by territory

America

Brazil

USA

United States

Asia and Oceany

Australia

Europe

Austria

France

Germany

Ireland

Italy

Norway

Poland

Russia and some former USSR republics

Spain

United Kingdom

References

See also

External links

History

The first universities were founded in ancient India in Taxila (Takshashila University) and Nalanda (Nalanda University) in the 7th century BC and 5th century BC, respectively, followed by Byzantium in the 5th century (in Constantinopolis and Athens). The first university in the Islamic world was founded in Cairo (Al-Azhar University) in the 10th century, while in western Europe, universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries.
As with other professions, teaching in universities was only carried out by people who were properly qualified. In the same way that a carpenter would pass through the grades of apprentice and journeyman to attain the status of ''master carpenter'' when fully qualified by his guild, a teacher would become a ''master'' when he had been licensed by his profession, the teaching guild. These teaching guilds in various cities took on the identity "university" when granted a charter by the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor, and students were admitted to the university and passed through its grades in ways directly analogous to those of the trade guilds.
In the medieval universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the ''trivium'' (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the quadrivium (mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their masters, would be admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts, from the Latin ''baccalaureus'', a term previously usually used of a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight. Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of disputations would earn one the master of arts degree, from the Latin magister, teacher, entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin ''gradus'' ("step").
Today the terms "master," "doctor" (from the Latin - meaning literally: "teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred the Master of Arts but, for instance, the highest degree was variously termed Master of Theology/ Divinity or Doctor of Theology/ Divinity depending on the place).
The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine. Note that medicine is now the only field in which the title "doctor" is commonly applied in the UK, albeit informally, to individuals who have only obtained their first academic qualification. The doctor title is also used by those holding other types of doctoral degrees, as it signifies that they have achieved the highest degree in a specific discipline.
The University of Paris used the term ''master'' for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrew's, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh.
The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term ''doctor'' for all advanced degrees developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.
The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The ''baccalauréat'' (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded ''licence'', much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies.
In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Britain, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Only the universities of Oxford and Cambridge still permit the D.Phil. (Oxford) or Ph. D. (Cambridge) to be conferred upon a student by an individual member of the faculty.

Examples of degrees

Some examples of specific degrees follow each general term. For more information, see the article about the general term.

★ Associate's degrees (U.S.): AA (Associate of Arts), ABS (Associate of Baccalaureate Studies), AS (Associate of Science), AAS (Associate of Applied Science), AFA (Associate of Fine Arts), AES (Associate of Engineering Science), AGS (Associate in General Studies), AAT (Associate of Arts in Teaching), AOS (Associate of Occupational Sciences)

★ Foundation degrees (U.K.): Fd A., Fd Mus., Fd Ed., Fd Eng., Fd Mus., Fd Sc., FdTech

★ Bachelor's degrees: BAcy, BArch, AB or BA, BSc or SB or BS, BSc(Agr) or BSA, BBus, BSBA, BSPH, BCom or BComm, BDes, BFA, BEc, BEd, BAI (Dubl.) or BEng or BE, BD, BDes, BHE, BIS, BJ, LLA, BPharm, BPE, BHK, BCL, LL.B., MB ChB or MB BS or BM BS or MB BChir or MB BCh BAO, Vet.M.B., BN, BMus, B.Math, BPhil BTech, BBA, BAdm, MA (Hons), BDS, BSW, BVSc

★ Master's degrees: MA, MS or MSc, MCM, MA (Oxon/Cantab/Dubl), M.St., M.DIV., M.P.M., MLitt, MAcy or MSA, MArch, MBM, MCA, MEd or EdM, DEA or DESS,^[1] Lic. Arts, MS, MALD, MApol, MEc, MPhil, MRes,MRUP, MFA, MLS, MTh, MTS, M.Div., MBA, MSF, MHA, MIA, MPA, MPAS, MPD, MPIA, MJ, MSW, MPAff, MLIS, MMedSc, LL.M., MN, MPS,MPH, MPSA, MPM, MPP, MPT, MRE, MTheol, LLM, MEng, MAS, MSci, MBio, MChem, MPharm, MPhys, MMath, MMus, MESci, MGeol, MRUP, MTCM, MSSc, BCL^[2] (Oxon), ThM and MAT

★ Licentiate degrees: LDS, JCL, STL, SSL, LSS, LRSM

★ Specialist degrees: Ed.S., SSP

★ Engineer's degrees: Ch.E., B.E., C.E., C.E., E.E., E.A.A., E.C.S., Env.E., I.E., Mat.E., Mech.E., Nav.E., Nucl.E., Ocean E., Sys.E.

★ Professional degrees: Au.D., DDS, PharmD,^[3], M.D., ND, D.C., DO, OD, DVM, V.M.D, J.D.

★ Doctoral degrees: J.C.D., Ph.D., P.Th.D., EdD, DProf, EngD, DTech, DNursSci, DBA, DPA, DGov, D.D., DSc, DLitt, DA, DMA, DMD, DPS, D.Min., DMus, DFA, DCL, DCL, LL.D., LHD, ThD, S.T.D., J.U.D., SSD, DrPH, DPM, DPT, DPhil, DOM, OMD, PsyD, DSocSci, DSW and D.H.Sc.
Abbreviations for degrees can place the level either before or after the faculty or discipline, depending on the institution. For example, DSc and ScD both stand for the (higher) doctorate in science. Various other abbreviations also vary between institutions, for instance BS and BSc both stand for 'Bachelor of Science'.
There are various conventions for indicating degrees and diplomas after one's name. In some cultures it is usual to give only the highest degree. In others, it is usual to give the full sequence, in some cases giving abbreviations also for the discipline, the institution, and (where it applies) the level of honours. In another variation, a 'rule of subsumption' often shortens the list and may obscure the chronology evident from a full listing. Thus 'MSc BA' means that the degrees conferred were - in chronological order - BSc, BA, MSc. The subsumption rule reflects the principle that a person of a given high status does not separately belong to the lower status.
For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities , there is a standard list of abbreviations, but in practise many variations are used. Most notable is the use of the Latin abbreviations 'Oxon.' and 'Cantab.' for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, in spite of these having been superseded by (little used) English 'Oxf.' and 'Camb.' Other Latin abbreviations include Exon. for the University of Exeter, Dunelm. for Durham University, Ebor. for the University of York and Cantuar. for the University of Kent (formerly the "University of Kent at Canterbury"). Confusion results from the widespread use of 'SA' for the University of South Australia (instead of S.Aust.) because 'SA' was officially assigned to the University of South Africa. For universities of different commonwealth countries sharing the same name, such as York University in Canada and the University of York in the UK, a convention has been adopted where a country abbreviation is included with the letters and university name. In this example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' is commonly used to denote degrees conferred by their respective universities.
The doubling of letters in LL.B., LL.M., LL.D. is because these degrees are in laws, not law. The doubled letter indicates the Latin plural ''legum'' as opposed to the singular ''legis''. Abbreviations for the degrees in surgery Ch. B. and Ch. M. are from Latin ''chiruguriae'' and often indicate a university system patterned after Scottish models. The combination of M.B. with Ch. B. arose from a need to graduate the students at the time of year allocated to graduation rituals, but the legal inability to confer the M.B. before they had been properly approved by professional regulatory bodies. Thus the Ch. B. was conferred first, and the M.B. was conferred later, after registration, and without ceremony. In recent times the two have come to be conferred together and are widely (mis)understood to constitute a single degree.
Some degrees are awarded ''jure dignitatis''. That is, a person who has demonstrated the appropriate qualities to be given a particular office may be awarded the degree by virtue of the office held. It is another kind of earned--but not strictly academic--degree.

Degree systems by territory

America

Brazil

Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities normally graduate either with a ''Bacharel'' degree (equivalent to an American B.S. or B.A.) or with a professional degree (roughly modeled on the old German Diplom).
''Bacharel'' degrees are awarded in most fields of study in the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, or natural sciences and normally take five years to complete (degrees in medical sciences may require a extra time varying from one semester to two years of hands-on training). Professional degrees are awarded in state-regulated professions such as architecture, engineering, psychology, pharmacy, dental medicine, veterinary medicine, or human medicine and are named after the profession itself, i.e. one graduates with a degree of ''Engenheiro'' (engineer), ''Arquiteto'' (architect), or ''Médico'' (physician/surgeon) for example. Professional degrees are generally regarded as being of higher social standing than a ''Bacharel'' degree and are considered more academically demanding. A typical course of study leading to a first professional degree in Brazil normally takes five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years.
In addition to the standard ''Bacharel'' and professional degrees, Brazilian universities also offer the ''Licenciatura'' degree, available for students who want to qualify as school teachers. ''Licenciatura'' courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural sciences. Although ''Licenciatura'' courses also last 4 years, they are nonetheless considered to be of lower standing than a ''Bacharelado'' course. A lower degree of ''Tecnólogo'' (Technologist) is also available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years only.
Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as ''transferência interna''), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major.
Individuals who hold either a ''Bacharel'' degree or a professional diploma are eligible for admission into graduate courses leading to advanced master's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and possibly oral interviews. In most cases however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the Natural Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects (sometimes the prospect is given ''in promptu'' during the interview), preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies.
Master's degrees normally take two years to obtain and are classified into academic master's degrees or professional master's degrees. Requirements for an academic master's degree normally include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically berween five and eight) and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute; The emphasis of the thesis must be in it's clarity and ease of understanding by future students, not in it's originality. Professional master's degrees on the other hand normally involve taking a larger number of classes, and, in the case of engineering programs in particular, often completing a project as an intern in an engineering company and submitting a final project report. The most relevant differece to the international scenario is that, due to restrictive production goals set by government agencies, in most universities a Master degree is not only considered inferior to a Doctor degree but a pre-requisite for the admission in a Doctorate program.
Master's titles in Brazil normally include an explicit reference to the field of study in which they were awarded, e.g. one graduates with a degree of ''Mestre em Engenharia'' (Master of Engineering), ''Mestre em Economia'' (Master of Economics), and so on. The generic title ''Mestre em Ciências'' (Master of Sciences) is used sometimes though, especially in the natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, etc.). The word ''profissional'' is normally added to the title to distinguish it from an academic master's degree, e.g. ''Mestre Profissional em Engenharia Aeronáutica'' (Professional Master in Aeronautical Engineering).
Doctor's degrees on the other hand normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete and are of a higher standing than a master's degree; With very few exceptions (namely, people with outstanding accomplishments in research), a Master degree or equivalent is required for admission in a Doctorate Program. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That constrasts with master's theses, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute.
Conventions for naming doctoral degrees follow similar rules to those used for master's degree, i.e. an explicit reference to the field of study is normally included in the title itself, e.g. ''Doutor em Engenharia'' (Doctor of Engineering), ''Doutor em Direito'' (Doctor of Laws), ''Doutor em Economia'' (Doctor of Economics), etc., although a generic title like ''Doutor em Ciências'' (Doctor of Sciences) may be occasionally used.
Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo still award the title of , which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a ''Livre-Docência'' examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors.

USA

United States

In the United States, since the late 1800s, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study than the European equivalents.
In the United States, most standard ''academic'' programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often bachelor of arts, B.A., or bachelor of science, B.S.), a two-year master's degree (most often master of arts, M.A., or master of science, M.S.; both of these programs might be three years in length) and a further two years or so of coursework and research, plus teaching experience and the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy, Ph.D.) for a total of about nine years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is flexible however as, for instance, students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four years to complete.
Some schools—mostly junior colleges and community colleges, but some four-year schools as well—offer an associate's degree for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. This may sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree.
In the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree." These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields rather than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission (a notable exception being the PharmD program), and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight.
Some fields such as fine art or architecture have chosen to name their first professional degree after the bachelor's a "master's degree" (e.g., M.F.A.) while the professional degree in medicine is known as "doctor" (e.g., MD or DO); the legal profession has ''renamed'' its degree from Bachelor (L.L.B.) to Doctor (J.D.). Despite being named "masters" some masters degree programs may require about the same amount of time to complete as "professional doctorate" programs in other fields so the naming is somewhat arbitrary. For example, despite being a "masters" level degree, the first professional degree in architecture may require 3 to 3.5 years to complete. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago.[1] It is important to recognize that first-professional degrees in these fields, which are normally earned after the bachelor's, are not normally original research oriented degrees. [2]

Asia and Oceany

Australia

In some countries, such as Australia, a diploma is a specific academic award in addition to that of Bachelor/Masters/Doctorate. Diplomas are usually signified by a stole rather than an academic hood, the latter being used only for those of graduate status. A person with a diploma is termed a ''diplomate''.
Australia has several different kinds of diplomas: Diplomas, Advanced Diplomas, Graduate Diplomas and Postgraduate Diplomas. The system is not without anomalies, due largely to the different traditions of individual institutions which the Australian Qualifications Framework aims to regularise. A Diploma is usually equivalent to the first year of a Bachelor's degree, although a few have been similar to Bachelor of Arts degrees and permit direct admission to graduate programs.
An Australian [Advanced Diploma] is usually considered lower than a Bachelor degree, but may qualify its holder for advanced placement in a Bachelor program, direct admission to a Graduate Diploma course or (albeit rarely) direct admission to a Masters program.
Graduate Diplomas are always higher than a Bachelor degree, and usually require one year of full-time study. They are often an additional course taken after a standard Bachelor degree to introduce a specialization in a particular field or a new discipline. For example, Australian school teachers often study for a bachelor's degree in Arts or Science, then in an additional year complete requirements for a Graduate Diploma of Education, which qualifies them as school teachers. Some Graduate Diplomas are simply the first two semesters of a three- or four-semester Master's program. (In the past, the Graduate Diploma of Education was called the Diploma of Education.)
Some universities have issued Postgraduate Diplomas, which are always in the same discipline as the undergraduate degree, and generally no different from a Bachelor with Honours degree, which requires one year after a regular Bachelor degree.

Europe

In Europe, degrees are being harmonized through the Bologna process, which is based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees: ''Bachelor'' (Licence in France), ''Master'' and ''Doctor''. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system now in use in some countries.
This system is also currently in use in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.

Austria

In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:

★ the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/Diplom followed by the Doctorate, and

★ the three-cycle system of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate as defined by the Bologna process.
With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010^[4]. Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master's programmes.

France

In French universities, the academic degree system was quite complicated : the first degree was the baccalauréat (completed in fact after high school), then the two-year ''diplôme d'études universitaires générales'' (DEUG General Academic Studies Degree) or ''premier cycle'' (undergraduate education), then the one-year ''licence'', the one-year ''maîtrise'' (master's degree), the two forming the ''second cycle'' (graduate education), the 1-2 years Diplôme d'Études Approfondies, Special Studies Degree and the three-year doctorate, the two forming the ''troisième cycle'' (postgraduate education). With the Bologna Process, the system is now much more simple: ''baccalauréat'', licence, master, a new two-year degree merging ''maîtrise'' and DEA, and doctorate.

Germany

In Germany there are several academic degrees. Traditionally, the lowest degree has been the ''Magister'' and the ''Diplom'' (in science and engineering). This is somewhat misleading however, as the ''Diplom'', before its gradual displacement by other, Anglo-Saxon-inspired degrees, was also the highest non-PhD/Doctorate-title in many disciplines.
Since 1999, the traditional degrees are gradually being replaced by Bachelor's (''Bakkalaureus'') and Master's (''Master'') degrees (see Bologna process). The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically take five years or more to earn a ''Magister'' or ''Diplom''). Some universities are still resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. Universities must fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. In the future, the ''Diplom'' or ''Magister'' degree will no longer be awarded.
Doctorates are issued under a variety of names, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der medizinischen Wissenschaft (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom (University), Magister, or Master's student can proceed to a doctorate.
Sometimes incorrectly regarded as an academic degree, the Habilitation, a further endorsement beyond the doctorate earned by writing a second dissertation (the ''Habilitationschrift''), is the highest academic qualification in Germany. The "Dr. habil.", as it is abbreviated, is the necessary qualification for serving as a ''Privatdozent'' (roughly the equivalent of an American assistant professor), or as a ''Professor'' (roughly the equivalent of a full professor).

Ireland

In Ireland a National Diploma is below the standard of the honours bachelor degree, whilst the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree. The new NQAI National Framework of Qualifications, adopted in 2003, replaced the National Dipoma with the Ordinary Bachelors degree. The framework also clarifies that although the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree the learning outcomes are at the same level as for the Honours Bachelors Degree.
More technically, a diploma is a document attesting that its bearer has satisfied certain study requirements, as opposed to a degree being a status level in the academic community. For this reason, diplomas are 'awarded to' the recipient while degrees are 'conferred upon' the graduand who then becomes a graduate, or the graduand is "admitted to" a degree. Similarly a person 'has' a diploma, but a graduate 'is in' a status. It is also for this reason that study for diplomas can be at undergraduate or advanced level.

Italy

In Italy the lower academic degree is the ''diploma di maturità'' which is obtained at 18 years, after 5 years of study in a particular secondary school, focused on a certain subject (e.g. ''liceo classico'', ''liceo scientifico'', ''liceo linguistico'', ''perito tecnico'').
After the diploma one can enter university choosing a subject of study (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture). Almost all university courses of study nowadays are subdivided in two parts. A first degree (called ''laurea breve'') is obtained after 3 years of study and a short thesis on one subject. The second degree (called ''laurea specialistica'') can be obtained proceeding with usually 2 additional years of study and specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e.g. particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc.). The ''laurea specialistica'' is obtained after the discussion of a thesis (which usually involves some academic research or an internship in a private company).
Only few students continue their university career (after passing a public selection) with other 3 years of ''dottorato'' (equivalent to a Ph.D)mainly devoted to research (with some compulsory courses), the degree is also obtained after the discussion of a thesis on the results of the research done.
In alternative after obtaining the ''laurea spcialistica'' one can attend a so called Master, offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and prices (one year of Master in Italy can cost more than the taxes payed for all the preceding university education), usually including a final internship in a company.

Norway

''The content of this section was translated from the corresponding article in the Norwegian Wikipedia''
Prior to 2003, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the Norwegian higher education system. In 2003, a reform was instituted to replace this older system with an "international system."
For example, many degrees had titles that included the Latin term ''candidatus/candidata''. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. These degrees were all retired in 2003.
The reform of higher education in Norway, ''Kvalitetsreformen'', was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the Stortinget, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles ''master'' and ''bachelor (baccalaureus)''.
The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology. The latter corresponds to the former ''sivilingeniør'' degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree," written ''philosophiæ doctor'' (instead of the traditional ''doctor philosophiæ''). The title dr. philos. is reserved for those who qualify for a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.

Poland

In Poland the system is similar to the German one. For instance, Warsaw University confers the following university degrees and titles:

★ ''licencjat'' title (the equivalent of a Bachelor's degree, granted after at least 3 years of study),

★ ''magister'' title (the equivalent of a Master's degree, granted after 5 years of study, or 2 years of additional study by holders of a previous degree),

★ ''doktor'' degree (Doctor's degree, Ph. D.),

★ ''doktor habilitowany'' degree (Polish Habilitation degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body),
The ''profesor'' (Professor's) title is officially conferred by the President of Poland.

Russia and some former USSR republics

There are three academic degrees in Russia and some former USSR republics.
The lowest one is called diploma, is awarded after 5-7 years of college, requires writing small (usually 20-50 pages) research thesis and is roughly equivalent to US master degree.
Second level degree is called "candidat of ... sciences" (say, candidat of physical-mathematical sciences, or candidat of engineering sciences, candidat of historical sciences, etc). This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually 5-20 publications suffice), and writing in-depth thesis (80-200 pages). Special scientific council of notable specialists in the field then reviews the thesis, the written opinions of several outside referees, and upon approval recommends the thesis for defense. Upon open defense in front of the same council the members of the coincil vote (it takes dominant majority - 67% - to pass) and then a chair writes a statement on recommending to award the degree "candidat of ... sciences" to the defendant. All paperwork including thesis is then sent to so called Highest attestation committee which upon review makes final approval and then issues the diploma of "candidat of science". The "candidat of sciences" degree is roughly equivalent to US Ph.D. degree, although it requires longer research efforts, more publications (actually in US publications are not required for Ph.D. degree), wider exposure, and larger peer pool to pass.
Finally, there is a "doctor of ... sciences" degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environment. This degree is sought after by established scientists who made discovery-level contributions into certain field (formally - who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon, or development of new theory, or essential development of new direction, etc. This usually takes a decade or two of hard work after receiving "candidat of sciences" degree, an extensive list of publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually ~50-300+ papers), publishing a few monographs, extensive participation in various panels and peers (journals, conferences, grant/award panels, etc), and establishing a school of "candidates of sciences" under own supervision (so at least a few of your students have received "candidacy" degrees working with you on your discovery or in your new field/direction). It requires writing a deep and advanced thesis (usually 300-800 pages) and defending it in front of special council of prominent scientists in the field (or in adjacent fields if the field/discovery is completely new) in a similar to "candidat of sciences" defense manner. Upon voting all paperwork is again sent to the Highest attestation committee which upon approval awards the diploma of "doctor of ... sciences".
There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system.
Currently there is also a trend in Russia to introduce a degree which is somewhat equivalent to bachelour degree (requires only 3-4 years of college) which however is not considered an academic degree.

Spain

United Kingdom

The standard first degree in the United Kingdom is the Bachelors degree with honours (e.g. BA (hons) for arts subjects, BEng (hons) for Engineering and Bsc (hons)for science). This usually takes three years' full-time study in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; four years' in Scotland.
(Note: The additional year of study in Scotland reflects the broader scope of the final two years of Scottish secondary education, where traditionally five (or sometimes more) "Highers" are studied, compared to three (typically) English or Welsh "A-Levels". It has long been argued that the standard of A-Levels is significantly above that of "Highers", and in certain cases, prospective students holding relevant A-Levels are admitted directly to the second year of a Scottish Bachelor's degree course. This practice was commonplace in the past, but evolutionary changes to the A-Level system, and evolving degree course structure are reducing the disparities.)
Bachelors degrees are usually categorised by one of five grades:
The first, and highest, is first class honours, notified as (1). There is then Second class honours, division one, denoted as (2:1 or 2:I). This is followed by second class honours, division two or lower second (2:2 or 2:II). Third class honours follow, shown as (3). Students who do not achieve the standard for the award of honours may be given a pass degree which is without honours.
The Graduateship (post-nominal GCGI) awarded by the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped to a British Honours degree
Some students study an integrated Masters, which is still a first degree. This takes four years of study and is usually designated by the subject, such as MEng for engineering. Grades are as above.
Unlike the case in the United States, Masters Degrees may take only one year of full-time study, and the usual amount of time spent working for a Ph.D. is three years full-time. Therefore, whilst the usual amount of time spent studying from Bachelors level through to doctorate in the United States is nine years, it is in most cases only seven in the United Kingdom, and may be just six, since a Master's degree is not always a precondition for embarking on a PhD.
Recently, there has been a significant rise in the number of courses offering "Postgraduate Diplomas", often in very specific, vocationally-related subjects. Many institutions (eg The Open University) offer these courses over one year, with an additional year required for the award of a Masters. The popularity of these courses is in part due to legislative requirements to demonstrate managerial competence in public-sector related functions.
A Foundation degree can be awarded for having completed two years of study in, what is usually, a vocational discipline. The Foundation degree is comparable to an associate's degree in the United States, and can be awarded by a University, or College of Higher Education.

References

1. Former French degree, ''diplôme d'études approfondies''
2. Note: Despite their names, the Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) and the Bachelor of Philosophy B.Phil. offered at the University of Oxford are both advanced degrees (in law and philosophy respectively) - what, in America, would be called "second bachelors degrees," because they're bachelor's degrees by name but they require a prior bachelor's degree in order to earn them. Likewise, the Canadian LL.B. is a second bachelor's degree, and that was also the case with LL.B. when it was still conferred by American law schools.
3. Note: In the U.S., some pharmacy schools offer the PharmD as a six-year program which does not require a prior bachelor's degree and is more akin to a professional Master's degree, while currently there is debate among the pharmacy community and pressure from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy to make schools offer it as a 4-year post-bachelors program.
4.

See also

★ List of fields of doctoral studies

★ Ad eundem degree

★ Degrees of the University of Oxford

★ External degree

★ Higher education

★ Honorary degree

★ Lambeth degree

★ Lisbon Recognition Convention

★ List of education articles by country

★ Validation of foreign studies and degrees

External links

★ Academic Degree Abbreviations

★ Glossary of Academic Degrees

★ Directory of Academic Degrees