This article is a list of different language classification proposals developed for
indigenous languages of the Americas. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not always neatly correspond to these continent divisions.
''(See: '
Indigenous languages of the Americas' for the main article about these languages.)''
North America
Gallatin (1836)
An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by
A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1926, 1936, and 1948. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by
Daniel G. Brinton and
John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.)
: (Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in ''italics''.)
'Families'
# Algonkin-Lenape ''
(=Algonquian)''
# Athapascas ''
(=Athabaskan)''
# Catawban ''
(=Catawba + Woccons)''
# Eskimaux ''
(=Eskimoan)''
# Iroquois ''
(=Northern Iroquoian)''
# Cherokees ''
(=Southern Iroquoian)''
# Muskogee ''
(=Eastern Muskogean)''
# Chahtas ''
(=Western Muskogean)''
# Sioux ''
(=Siouan)''
'Languages'
| # Adaize '' (=Adai)''# Attacapas '' (=Atakapa)''# Salmon River '' (=Bella Coola)''# Black Feet '' (=Blackfoot)''# Pawnees '' (=Northern Caddoan)''# Caddoes '' (=Southern Caddoan)''# Chinooks '' (=Chinookan)''# Chetimachas '' (=Chitimacha)''# Fall Indians '' (=Gros Ventre)''# Queen Charlotte's Island '' (=Haida)'' | 11. Straits of Fuca '' (=Makah)''
12. Natches '' (=Natchez)''
13. Wakash '' (=Nootka)''
14. Salish '' (=Salishan)''
15. Shoshonees '' (=Shoshone)''
16. Atnahs '' (=Shuswap)''
17. Kinai '' (=Tanaina)''
18. Koulischen '' (=Tlingit)''
19. Utchees '' (=Yuchi)'' |
Gallatin (1848)
'Families'
# Algonquian languages
# Athabaskan languages
# Catawban languages
# Eskimoan languages
# Iroquoian languages (Northern)
# Iroquoian languages (Southern)
# Muskogean languages
# Siouan languages
'Languages'
1. Adai
2. Alsean
3. Apache
4. Arapaho
5. Atakapa
6. Caddoan, Northern
7. Caddoan, Southern
8. Cayuse-Molala
9. Chinookan
10. Chitimacha
11. Comanche
12. Haida
13. Kalapuyan
14. Kiowa
15. Klamath
16. Koasati-Alabama
17. Kootenai
| 18. Kutchin
19. Maricopa (Yuman)
20. Natchez
21. Palaihnihan
22. Plains Apache
23. Sahaptian
24. Salishan
25. Shasta
26. Shoshone
27. Tanaina
28. Tlingit
29. Tsimshian
30. Ute
31. Wakashan, Southern
32. Wichita
33. Yuchi
|
Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"
John Wesley Powell, an explorer employed by the
Bureau of American Ethnology, published a classification of 58 "stocks" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent.
John Wesley Powell was in a race with
Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.
: ''(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)''
1. Adaizan
2. Algonquian
3. Athapascan
4. Attacapan '' (=Atakapa)''
5. Beothukan '' (=Beothuk)''
6. Caddoan
7. Chimakuan
8. Chimarikan '' (=Chimariko)''
9. Chimmesyan '' (=Tsimshian)''
10. Chinookan
11. Chitimachan '' (=Chitimacha)''
12. Chumashan
13. Coahuiltecan
14. Copehan '' (=Wintuan)''
15. Costanoan
16. Eskimauan '' (=Eskimoan)''
17. Esselenian '' (=Esselen)''
18. Iroquoian
19. Kalapooian '' (=Kalapuyan)''
20. Karankawan '' (=Karankawa)''
| 21. Keresan
22. Kiowan '' (=Kiowa)''
23. Kitunahan '' (=Kutenai)''
24. Koluschan '' (=Tlingit)''
25. Kulanapan '' (=Pomoan)''
26. Kusan '' (=Coosan)''
27. Lutuamian '' (=Klamath-Modoc)''
28. Mariposan '' (=Yokutsan)''
29. Moquelumnan '' (=Miwokan)''
30. Muskhogean '' (=Muskogean)''
31. Natchesan '' (=Natchez)''
32. Palaihnihan
33. Piman '' (=Uto-Azetcan)''
34. Pujunan '' (=Maiduan)''
35. Quoratean '' (=Karok)''
36. Salinan
37. Salishan
38. Sastean '' (=Shastan)''
39. Shahaptian '' (=Sahaptian)''
| 40. Shoshonean '' (=Uto-Azetcan)''
41. Siouan '' (=Siouan-Catawba)''
42. Skittagetan '' (=Haida)''
43. Takilman '' (=Takelma)''
44. Tañoan '' (=Tanoan)''
45. Timuquanan '' (=Timucua)''
46. Tonikan '' (=Tunica)''
47. Tonkawan '' (=Tonkawa)''
48. Uchean '' (=Yuchi)''
49. Waiilatpuan '' (=Cayuse & Molala)''
50. Wakashan
51. Washoan '' (=Washo)''
52. Weitspekan '' (=Yurok)''
53. Wishoskan '' (=Wiyot)''
54. Yakonan '' (=Siuslaw & Alsean)''
55. Yanan
56. Yukian
57. Yuman
58. Zuñian '' (=Zuni)''
|
Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica
Below is
Edward Sapir's (1929) famous ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a "lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo-Aleut, Algonkin-Wakashan, Nadene, Penutian, Hokan-Siouan, and Aztec-Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks in that appear Sapir's list below are present in the original article.)
: "Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"
| 'I. ''Eskimo-Aleut''''II. ''Algonkin-Wakashan''': 1. ''Algonkin-Ritwan'':: (1) Algonkin:: (2) Beothuk (?):: (3) Ritwan::: (a) Wiyot::: (b) Yurok: 2. ''Kootenay'': 3. ''Mosan (Wakashan-Salish)'':: (1) Wakashan (Kwakiutl-Nootka):: (2) Chimakuan:: (3) Salish'III. ''Nadene''': 1. ''Haida'': 2. ''Continental Nadene'':: (1) Tlingit:: (2) Athabaskan'IV. ''Penutian''': 1. ''Californian Penutian'':: (1) Miwok-Costanoan:: (2) Yokuts:: (3) Maidu:: (4) Wintun: 2. ''Oregon Penutian'':: (1) Takelma:: (2) Coast Oregon Penutian::: (a) Coos::: (b) Siuslaw::: (c) Yakonan:: (3) Kalapuya: 3. ''Chinook'': 4. ''Tsimshian'': 5. ''Plateau Penutian'':: (1) Sahaptin:: (2) Waiilatpuan (Molala-Cayuse):: (3) Lutuami (Klamath-Modoc): 6. ''Mexican Penutian'':: (1) Mixe-Zoque:: (2) Huave | 'V. ''Hokan-Siouan''': 1. ''Hokan-Coahuiltecan'':: A. Hokan::: (1) Northern Hokan:::: (a) Karok, Chimariko, Shasta-Achomawl:::: (b) Yana:::: (c) Pomo::: (2) Washo::: (3) Esselen-Yuman:::: (a) Esselen:::: (b) Yuman::: (4) Salinan-Seri:::: (a) Salinan:::: (b) Chumash:::: (c) Seri::: (5) Tequistlatecan (Chontal):: B. Subtiaba-Tlappanec:: C. Coahuiltecan::: (1) Tonkawa::: (2) Coahuilteco:::: (a) Coahuilteco proper:::: (b) Cotoname:::: (c) Comecrudo::: (3) Karankawa: 2. ''Yuki'': 3. ''Keres'': 4. ''Tunican'':: (1) Tunica-Atakapa:: (2) Chitimacha: 5. ''Iroquois'':: (1) Iroquoian:: (2) Caddoan: 6. ''Eastern group'':: (1) Siouan-Yuchi::: (a) Siouan::: (b) Yuchi:: (2) Natchez-Muskogian::: (a) Natchez::: (b) Muskogian::: (c) Timucua (?)'VI. ''Aztec-Tanoan''': 1. ''Uto-Aztekan'':: (1) Nahuatl:: (2) Piman:: (3) Shoshonean: 2. ''Tanoan-Kiowa'':: (1) Tanoan:: (2) Kiowa: 3. ''Zuñi (?)'' |
Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964
thumb
thumb
The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.
Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.
Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"
Campbell & Mithun's 1979 is a more conservation classification where they insist on demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phylums of previous authors are "split".
Greenberg (1987)
Joseph Greenberg's classification in his 1987 book ''
Language in the Americas'' is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than
Eskimo-Aleut and
Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an
Amerind superfamily.
#Northern Amerind
##Almosan-Keresiouan
###Almosan
####Algic
####Kutenai
####Mosan
#####Wakashan
#####Salish
#####Chimakuan
###Caddoan
###Keres
###Siouan
###Iroquoian
##Penutian
###California Penutian
####Maidu
####Miwok-Costanoan
####Wintun
####Yokuts
###Chinook
###Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan)
####Huave
####Mayan
####Mixe-Zoque
####Totonac
###Oregon Penutian
###Plateau Penutian
###Tsimshian
###Yukian
###Gulf
####Atakapa
####Chitimacha
####Muskogean
####Natchez
####Tunica
###Zuni
##Hokan
###Nuclear Hokan
####Northern
#####Karok-Shasta
#####Yana
#####Pomo
####Washo
####Esselen-Yuman
####Salinan-Seri
####Waicuri
####Maratino
####Quinigua
####Tequistlatec
###Coahuiltecan
####Tonkawa
####Nuclear Coahuiltecan
####Karankawa
###Subtiaba
###Jicaque
###Yurumangui
#Central Amerind
##Kiowa-Tanoan
##Otomanguean
##Uto-Aztecan
##Central American (other groups except Tlapanecan (=Hokan))
#Chibchan-Paezan (two major subfamilies).
##Timicua
#Andean (two major subfamilies).
#Equatorial-Tucanoan (two major subfamilies)
#Ge-Pano-Carib (or Macro-Ge/Macro-Pano/Macro-Carib) (three major subfamilies)
Goddard (1996), Campell (1997), Mithun (1999)
(preliminary)
FAMILIES
#Algic
##Algonquian
##Wiyot (>Ritwan?)
##Yurok (>Ritwan?)
#Na-Dene
##Eyak-Athabaskan
###Eyak
###Athabaskan
##Tlingit
#Caddoan (>Macro-Siouan?)
#Chimakuan
#Chinookan (> Penutian?)
#Chumashan [chúmash]
#Comecrudan
#Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?)
#Eskimo-Aleut
##Eskimoan
##Aleut = Unangan
#Iroquoian
#Kalapuyan [kalapúyan]
#Kiowa-Tanoan
#Maiduan
#Muskogean [m^sk^djían]
#Palaihnihan (Achumawi-Atsugewi)
#Pomoan [pómo, pomóan]
#Sahaptian
#Salishan [sélish]
#Shastan
#Siouan-Catawban
##Siouan
##Catawban
#Tsimshianic
#Utian
##Miwok
##Costanoan
#Utaztecan
##Numic = Plateau
##Tübatulabal = Kern
##Takic = Southern California
##Hopi = Pueblo
##Tepiman = Pimic
##Taracahitic
##Tubar
##Corachol
##Aztecan
#Wakashan
##Kwakiutlan
##Nootkan
#Wintuan (>Coast Penutian?)
#Yokutsan
#Yuman-Cochimi
##Yuman
##Cochimi
ISOLATES
#Adai
#Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?)
#Atakapa (>Tunican?)
#Beothuk (unclassifiable?)
#Cayuse
#Chimariko [chimáriko]
#Chititmacha [shitimashá] (>Tunican?)
#Coahuilteco
#Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo
#Esselen
#Haida
#Karankawa
#Karuk
#Keres
#Klamath-Modoc
#Kootenai [kúteni]
#Molala
#Natchez
#Salinan
#Siuslaw (>Coast Penutian?)
#Takelma [takélma]
#Timucua
#Tonkawa [tónkawa]
#Tunica (>Tunican?)
#Wappo (>Yuki-Wappo)
#Washo
#Yana
#Yuchi (>Siouan)
#Yuki (>Yuki-Wappo)
#Zuni
STOCKS
Yuki-Wappo supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997)
★ Yuki-Wappo
Penutian outside Mexico considered probably by many
★ Penutian
#Tsimshianic
#Chinookan
#Takelma
#Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998)
#Maidun
#Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997)
##Alsea
##Coosan
##Siuslaw
##Wintuan
#Plateau
##Sahaptian
##Klamath
##Molala
##Cayuse ? (poor data)
#Yok-Utian ?
##Yokuts
##Utian
Siouan-Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely
★ Macro-Siouan
#Iroquoian-Caddoan
##Iroquoian
##Caddoan
#Siouan-Yuchi
##Siouan-Catawban
##Yuchi
Natchez-Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis
★ Natchez-Muskogean
#Natchez
#Muskogean
Hokan: most promising proposals
★ Hokan
#Karuk
#Chimariko
#Shastan
#Palaihnihan
#Yana
#Washo
#Pomoan
#Esselen
#Salinan
#Yuman-Cochimi
#Seri
"Unlikely" to be Hokan:
:Chumashan
:Tonkawa
:Karankawa
Subtiaba-Tlappanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977).
Aztec-Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund.
Mesoamerica
(Consensus conservative classification)
FAMILIES
★ Uto-Aztecan (Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America)
:#Corachol (Cora-Huichol)
:#Aztecan (Nahua-Pochutec)
★ Totonac-Tepehua
★ Otomanguean
:#Otopamean
:#Popolocan-Mazatecan
:#Subtiaba-Tlapanec
:#Amuzgo
:#Mixtecan
:#Chatino-Zapotec
:#Chinantec
:#Chiapanec-Mangue (extinct)
★ Tequistlatec-Jicaque
★ Mixe-Zoque
★ Mayan
★ Misumalpan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America)
★ Chibchan (Outside Mesoamerican proper. See South America)
:#Paya
ISOLATES
★ Tarascan (= Purepecha)
★ Cuitlatec (extinct)
★ Huave
★ Xinca (extinct?)
★ Lenca (extinct)
PROPOSED STOCKS
★ Hokan (see North America)
:#Tequistlatec-Jicaque
★ Macro-Mayan (Penutian affiliation now considered doubtful.)
:#Totonac-Tepehua
:#Huave
:#Mixe-Zoque
:#Mayan
★ Macro-Chibchan
:#Chibchan
:#Misumalpan
:#Paya (sometimes placed in Chibchan proper)
:#Xinca
:#Lenca
South America
Kaufman (1990)
Families & isolates
Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 "genetic units". Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only ''language family'', such ''language area'', ''emergent area'', and ''language complex'', where he recognizes issues such as partial
mutual intelligibility and
dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply ''families''. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. A final note is that Kaufman uses his own nomenclature for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself (this unfortunately makes comparison with other classifications slightly more complicated). His names have been retained below.
| 'Families:'# Aimoré# Arawán# Barbakóan# Bóran# Boróroan# Chapakúran# Charrúan# Chíbchan# Chimúan# Chipaya# Chokó# Cholónan# Chon# Haki# Harákmbut# Hiraháran# Hívaro# Jabutían# Je# Kamakánan# Karajá# Káriban# Katakáoan# Katukínan# Kawapánan# Kawéskar# Kechua# Maipúrean# Mashakalían# Maskóian# Matákoan# Misumalpa# Mosetén# Múran# Nambikuara# Otomákoan# Páesan# Pánoan# Puinávean# Purían# Sálivan# Samúkoan# Sáparoan# Takánan# Timótean# Tiníwan# Tukánoan# Tupían# Wahívoan# Waikurúan# Warpe# Witótoan# Yanomáman# Yáwan | 'Isolates/Unclassfied:'# Aikaná# Andoke# Awaké# Baenã# Betoi# Chikitano# Ezmeralda# Fulnió# Gamela# Gorgotoki# Guató# Hotí# Iranshe# Itonama# Jaruro# Jeikó# Jurí# Kaliana# Kamsá# Kanichana# Kapishaná# Karirí# Katembrí# Kayuvava# Koayá# Kofán# Kandoshi# Kolyawaya jargon# Kukurá# Kulyi# Kunsa# Leko# Lule# Maku# Mapudungu# Matanawí# Movima# Munichi# Natú# Ofayé# Omurano# Otí# Pankararú# Puelche# Pukina# Rikbaktsá# Sabela# Sechura# Shokó# Shukurú# Tarairiú# Taruma# Tekiraka# Tikuna# Trumai# Tushá# Urarina# Vilela# Wamo# Wamoé# Warao# Yámana# Yurakare# Yurimang |
Stocks
In addition to his conversative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often an obvious hyphenation of two members, for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks.
'"Good" stocks:'
★ Awaké-Kaliana
★ Chibcha-Misumalpa
★ Ezmeralda-Jaruro
★ Jurí-Tikuna
★ Kechumara ''(=Kechua + Haki)'' (good?)
★ Lule-Vilela
★ Mosetén-Chon (good?)
★ Páes-Barbakóa
★ Pano-Takana
★ Sechura-Katakao
★ Wamo-Chapakúra
'"Probable" stocks:'
★ macro-Je ''(=Chikitano + Boróroan + Aimoré + Rikbaktsá + Je + Jeikó + Kamakánan + Mashakalían + Purían + Fulnío + Karajá + Ofayé + Guató)''
★ Mura-Matanawí
'"Promising" stocks:'
★ Kaliánan ''(=Awaké + Kaliana + Maku)''
'"Maybe" stocks:'
★ Bora-Witoto
★ Hívaro-Kawapana
★ Kunsa-Kapishaná
★ Pukina-Kolyawaya
★ Sáparo-Yawa
Clusters & networks
Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms ''clusters'' and ''networks''. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.
Bibliography
See:
Native_American_languages#Bibliography
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