Circumcision, when practiced as a rite, has its foundations in the
Bible, in the
Abrahamic covenant, such as , and is therefore practiced by
Jews and
Muslims and some
Christians, those who constitute the
Abrahamic religions.
Circumcising cultures may circumcise their males either shortly after birth, during childhood or around puberty as part of a rite of passage. Circumcision is most prevalent in Muslim countries, Israel, the United States, the Philippines and South Korea and is most prevalent in the
Jewish and
Muslim faiths. It is less common in Europe, Latin America, China and India. Hodges argues that in Ancient Greece the foreskin was valued and that Greek and Roman attempts to abolish ritual circumcision were prompted by humanitarian concerns.
[1]
Circumcision has a long history, and is mentioned frequently in the
Bible. However, it should be noted that the Bible means different things to different religious groups.
# For
Jews, the Bible consists of the 24 books in
Hebrew (and some
Biblical Aramaic) that are known as the
Tanakh.
# For
Protestant Christians, the Bible consists of the 39 books of the
Old Testament (following
Jerome's ''Veritas Hebraica'') plus the 27 books of the
New Testament.
# For
Catholic and most
Orthodox Christians, the Bible includes several other books known as the
Deuterocanonical books, the list being slightly different for each group. In addition, some Orthodox Christians have additional New Testament books, such as the
Ethiopian Orthodox and
Armenian Orthodox, or less, such as the
Syriac Orthodox Church, see
Biblical canon.
In the Jewish Bible
According to the
Jewish Bible, circumcision was enjoined upon the biblical patriarch
Abraham, his descendants and their slaves as "a token of the covenant" concluded with him by
God for all generations, an "everlasting covenant" (), thus it is commonly observed by the
Abrahamic religions.
The penalty of non-observance was ''karet'', excision from the people (Gen. 17:10-14, 21:4; Lev. 12:3). Non-Israelites had to undergo circumcision before they could be allowed to take part in the feast of
Passover (Ex. 12:48), or marry into a Jewish family (Gen. 34:14-16).
It was "a reproach" for an Israelite to be uncircumcised (Josh. 5:9.) The name ''arelim'' (uncircumcised) became an opprobrious term, denoting the
Philistines and other non-
Israelites (I Sam. 14:6, 31:4; II Sam. i. 20) and used synonymously with ''tame'' (unclean) for heathen (Isa. 52:1). The word 'arel' (uncircumcised) is also employed for "unclean" (Lev. 26:41, "their uncircumcised hearts"; compare Jer. 9:25; Ezek. xliv. 7, 9); it is even applied to the first three years' fruit of a tree, which is forbidden (Lev. 19:23).
However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after the exodus from
Egypt apparently did not carry out the practice of circumcision. According to Josh. 5:2-9, "all the people that came out" of Egypt were circumcised, but those "born in the wilderness" were not. In any case, we are told that
Joshua, before the celebration of the Passover, had them circumcised at
Gilgal.
says: "''Circumcise the 'foreskin of your heart',''" (also quoted in ,
New JPS translates as: "Cut away, therefore, the thickening about your hearts") along with : ''To whom shall I speak, and give warning, that they may hear? behold 'their ear is uncircumcised', and they cannot hearken: ...'' (New JPS translates: "Their ears are blocked"). Some interpret this as giving the rite a spiritual meaning; circumcision as a physical act being enjoined nowhere in the book. says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be punished alike by the Lord; for "all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart." The New JPS translation adds the note: "''uncircumcised of heart'': I.e., their minds are blocked to God's commandments." Non-Jewish tribes that practiced circumcision were described as being "circumcised in uncircumcision."()
The Bible contains several narratives in which circumcision is mentioned. There is the circumcision and massacre of the
Shechemites (), the hundred
foreskin dowry () and the story of the LORD threatening to kill Moses, and being placated by Zipporah's circumcision of their son (), and the ''Circumcision at Gilgal'' of .
In Judaism
Main articles: Brit milah
Judaism teaches that the Bible was transmitted in parallel with an oral tradition, known as the
oral law. Jewish practices and beliefs, thus, are based on reading the Bible through the perspective of the oral law; see the entries on the
Mishnah,
Talmud and
rabbinic literature.
According to
Jewish law, ritual circumcision of male children is a commandment from God that Jews are obligated to follow, and is only postponed or abrogated in the case of threat to the life or health of the child.
[2]; Jews do not believe that non-Jews are obligated to follow this commandment. Many Christians have the same understanding of this issue (i.e., that it is a law intended for Jews, but not for Christians). See also
Noahide laws.
In rabbinic literature
During the
Babylonian exile the
Sabbath and circumcision became the characteristic symbols of Judaism. This seems to be the underlying idea of Isa. lvi. 4: "The
eunuchs that keep my Sabbath" still "hold fast by my covenant," though not having "the sign of the covenant" (Gen. xvii. 11.) upon their flesh.
Contact with Greek polytheistic culture, especially at the games of the arena, made this distinction obnoxious to Jewish-Hellenists seeking to
assimilate into Greek culture. The consequence was their attempt to appear like the Greeks by
epispasm ("making themselves foreskins"; ; Josephus,
Ant. xii 5, § 1;
Assumption of Moses, viii.; ;, Tosef.; Talmud tractes Shabbat xv. 9; Yevamot 72a, b; Yerushalmi Peah i. 16b; Yevamot viii. 9a). Also, some Jews at this time stopped circumcising their children. records that the
Maccabean zealots "forcibly circumcised all the uncircumcised boys they found within the borders of Israel."
The
Rabbis also took action to ensure that the practice of circumcision did not die out. In order to prevent the obliteration of the "seal of the covenant" on the flesh, as circumcision was henceforth called, the Rabbis, probably after
Bar Kokhba's revolt, instituted the "peri'ah" (the laying bare of the
glans), without which circumcision was declared to be of no value (Shab. xxx. 6).
To be born circumcised was regarded as the privilege of the most saintly of people, from
Adam, "who was made in the image of God," and
Moses to
Zerubbabel (see Midrash Ab. R. N., ed. Schechter, p. 153; and Talmud, Sotah 12a). See also
Aposthia.
Uncircumcision being considered a blemish, circumcision was to remove it, and to render Abraham and his descendants "perfect" (Talmud Ned. 31b; Midrash Genesis Rabbah xlvi.)
Rabbinic literature holds that one who removes his circumcision has no portion in
the world to come (Mishnah Ab. iii. 17; Midrash Sifre, Num. xv. 31; Talmud Sanhedrin 99).
According to the Midrash Pirke R. El. xxix., it was
Shem who circumcised
Abraham and
Ishmael on the
Day of Atonement; and the blood of the covenant then shed is ever before God on that day to serve as an atoning power. According to the same midrash,
Pharaoh prevented the Hebrew slaves from performing the rite, but when the
Passover time came and brought them deliverance, they underwent circumcision, and mingled the blood of the paschal lamb with that of the Abrahamic covenant, wherefore (Ezek. xvi. 6) God repeats the words: "In thy blood live!"
Necessary or not?
The issue between the
Zealot and Liberal parties regarding the circumcision of
proselytes remained an open one in the
first century of the common era, a time before the
Mishnah was edited and the
Halakah was finalized.
R. Joshua asserting that along with accepting Jewish beliefs and laws, immersion in a
mikveh (ritual bath) was enough for someone to
convert to Judaism. In contrast, R. Eliezer makes circumcision a condition for the admission of a proselyte. A similar controversy between the
Shammaites and the
Hillelites is given (Shab. 137a) regarding a proselyte born circumcised: the former demanding the spilling of a drop of blood of the covenant; the latter declaring it to be unnecessary.
The rigorous view is echoed in the Midrash: "If thy sons accept My Godhead [by undergoing circumcision] I shall be their God and bring them into the land; but if they do not observe My covenant in regard either to circumcision or to the Sabbath, they shall not enter the land of promise" (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xlvi.). "The Sabbath-keepers who are not circumcised are intruders, and deserve punishment," (Midrash Deut. Rabbah i.)
It appears that while the Palestinian Jews accepted the uncircumcised proselytes only as "Proselytes of the Gate", non-Palestinian Judaism did not make such a distinction until the
Jewish-Roman wars, when the more rigorous view became prevalent everywhere. Thus
Flavius Clemens, a nephew of the emperors
Titus and
Domitian, when with his wife Domitilla he embraced the Jewish faith, underwent circumcision, for which he suffered the penalty of death (see Grätz, "Gesch." iv. 403 et seq., 702).
It was chiefly this rigorous feature of Jewish proselytism which provoked the hostile measures of the emperor
Hadrian. And, furthermore, it was the discussion of this same question among the Jews—whether the seal of circumcision might not find its substitute in "the seal of
baptism" — which led
Paul of Tarsus to urge the latter in opposition to the former (, , and elsewhere), just as he was led to adopt the
antinomistic or antinational view, which had its exponents in
Alexandria.
Flavius Josephus in
Jewish Antiquities book 20, chapter 2 recorded the story of King Izates of
Adiabene who decided to follow the
Law of Moses at the advice of a Jewish merchant named Ananias. He was going to get circumcised, but his mother, Helen, who herself embraced the Jewish customs, advised against it on the grounds that the subjects wouldn't stand to be ruled by someone who followed such "strange and foreign rites". Ananias likewise advised against it, on the grounds that worship of God was superior to circumcision (
Robert Eisenman in ''James the Brother of Jesus'' claims that Ananias is
Paul of Tarsus who held similar views) and that God would forgive him for fear of his subjects. So Izates decided against it. However, later, "a certain other Jew that came out of Galilee, whose name was Eleazar", who was well versed in the Law, convinced him that he should, on the grounds that it was one thing to read the Law and another thing to practice it, and so he did. Once Helen and Ananias found out, they were struck by great fear of the possible consequences, but as Josephus put it, God looked after Izates. As his reign was peaceful and blessed, Helen visited the Jerusalem Temple to thank God, and since there was a terrible famine at the time, she brought lots of food and aid to the people of Jerusalem.
Necessity
The consensus that became accepted in all segments of the Jewish community was that circumcision was an absolute requirement (barring, of course, medical conditions; Jewish law prohibits parents to have their son circumcised if medical doctors hold that the procedure may unduly threaten the child's health; e.g.
hemophilia.)
Unlike Christian baptism, circumcision, however important it may be, is not a
sacrament. Circumcision does not give a Jew his religious character as a Jew. An uncircumcised Jew is a full Jew by birth (Talmud Hul. 4b; Avodah Zarah 27a;
Shulkhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah, 264, 1).
A non-Jewish physician may, according to R. Meïr, in the absence of a Jewish expert, perform the ceremony, as may women, slaves, and children (Talmud Avodah Zarah 26b; Menachot 42a; Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, Milah, ii. 1;
Shulkhan Arukh, Yoreh De'ah, l.c.).
Circumcision must, whenever possible, take place on the eighth day, even when this falls upon the Sabbath (Shab. xix. 1);
Samaritans and the
Karaites dissent from this rule. However, if by reason of the child's debility or sickness the ceremony is postponed, it can not take place on the Sabbath (Talmud Shabbat 137a). It is the duty of the father to have his child circumcised; and if he fails in this, the
bet din of the city must see that the rite is performed (Talmud Kid. 29a).
Islam
The origin of circumcision in
Islam is a matter of religious and scholarly debate. It is mentioned in some ''
hadith'', but not in the
Qur'an. Some
Fiqh scholars state that circumcision is ''recommended'' (
Sunnah); others that it is ''obligatory''.
[3] Some have quoted the ''hadith'' to argue that the requirement of circumcision is based on the covenant with
Abraham.
[4]
The timing of Muslim circumcision varies. Turkish,
Balkan, rural Egyptians and Central and South Asian Muslims typically circumcise boys between the ages of six and eleven . Traditionally, Turkish circumcisions are celebrated with sweets and the "Sünnet Düğünü", or "Circumcision Feast/Celebration." It is considered a very important celebration in man's life as a passage to a manhood. However, in the middle class circumcision is more usually done in infancy.
[5] In
Pakistan, Muslims may be circumcised at all ages from the newborn period to adulthood, though the medical profession has encouraged medical circumcisions in the first week after birth to reduce complications: "Circumcision is performed by barbers, medical technicians, quacks and doctors including paediatric surgeon[s] [and as] yet there is no consensus for the best age and method."
[6] In Iran, Dr. Paula Drew states that “circumcision, which formerly celebrated the onset of manhood, has for many years now been more customarily performed at the age of 5 or 6 for children born at home, and at two days old for those born in a medical setting.…By puberty, all Muslim Iranian boys must be circumcised if they are to participate fully in religious activities.”
[7] Kamyar ''et al'' describe circumcision as an "obligatory custom" and note that it is not necessary for the circumciser to be a Muslim.
[8]
In the Deuterocanon/Apocrypha
The
Deuterocanon/
Apocrypha reveal the cultural clash between
Jews and
Greeks, and between
Judaizers and
Hellenizers. Greeks valued the foreskin and when they took part in athletic sports, they did it in the nude
[1]. However, they insisted that the
glans remained covered. They were therefore horrified by the Jewish custom of circumcision. The
Books of the Maccabees reveal that many Jewish men chose to undergo ''epispasm'',
foreskin restoration by stretching the residual skin
[2], so that they could conform to Greek culture and take part in these sports. (). Some also left their sons uncircumcised (). This relatively peaceful period came to an end when
Antiochus Epiphanes attacked first Egypt and then sacked and looted Jerusalem (). Epiphanes determined to force everyone to
live the Greek way and abandon the
Jewish way. Among other things, he banned circumcision.
Though many were prepared to conform to Greek culture, observant Jews saw circumcision as a mark of Jewish loyalty and many who kept to the
Mosaic Law defied the edict of Antiochus Epiphanes prohibiting circumcision (,; ). Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselves circumcising their sons. "For example, two women were brought in for having circumcised their children. They publicly paraded them around the city, with their babies hanging at their breasts, and then hurled them down headlong from the wall." () At the same time, the Zealots forcibly circumcised the uncircumcised boys within the borders of Israel ().
In the upshot, the Jewish Zealots defeated the Greeks and they retained the right to circumcise.
The
Book of Jubilees, part of the Bible of the
Ethiopian Orthodox, written in the time of
John Hyrcanus, reveals the hostility directed against those who abandoned circumcision (xv. 26-27): "Whosoever is uncircumcised belongs to 'the sons of
Belial,' to 'the children of doom and eternal perdition'; for all the angels of the Presence and of the Glorification have been so from the day of their creation, and God's anger will be kindled against the children of the covenant if they make the members of their body appear like those of the
Gentiles, and they will be expelled and exterminated from the earth".
According to the
Gospel of Thomas saying 53,
Jesus says:
:"His disciples said to him, "is circumcision useful or not?" He said to them, "If it were useful, their father would produce children already circumcised from their mother. Rather, the true circumcision in spirit has become profitable in every respect."" SV
[3]
Parallels to Thomas 53 are found in Paul's , , , , .
In Christianity
Christianity does not call for
circumcision. The
first Church Council in Jerusalem declared that circumcision was not necessary (
Acts 15). it is customary among the
Coptic,
Ethiopian, and
Eritrean Orthodox Churches, and also some other African churches
[Customary in some Coptic and other churches:]
★ "The Coptic Christians in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians— two of the oldest surviving forms of Christianity— retain many of the features of early Christianity, including male circumcision. Circumcision is not prescribed in other forms of Christianity... Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose the practice, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya, require circumcision for membership and participants in focus group discussions in Zambia and Malawi mentioned similar beliefs that Christians should practice circumcision since Jesus was circumcised and the Bible teaches the practice." Male Circumcision: context, criteria and culture (Part 1), Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, February 26, 2007.
★ "The decision that Christians need not practice circumcision is recorded in Acts 15; there was never, however, a prohibition of circumcision, and it is practiced by Coptic Christians." "circumcision", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05.. Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose circumcision, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya
[9][, require circumcision for membership. Some participants in focus group discussions in Zambia and Malawi said that Christians should practice circumcision because Jesus was circumcised and the Bible teaches the practice. Male Circumcision: context, criteria and culture (Part 1), Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, February 26, 2007.]
While Jesus' circumcision was recorded as having been performed in accordance with Torah requirements in , according to the Acts of the Apostles, chapter 15, the leaders of the Christian Church at the Council of Jerusalem rejected circumcision as a requirement for Gentile converts. Paul of Tarsus, who called himself ''Apostle to the Gentiles'', persistently attacked the practice, but in one case consented to the circumcision of Timothy "because of the Jews" that were in town (Timothy had a Jewish mother and a Greek father ). He also appeared to praise its value in . Paul argued that circumcision no longer meant the physical, but a spiritual practice (). And in that sense, he wrote : "Is any man called being circumcised? let him not become uncircumcised" -- probably a reference to the practice of epispasm [10]. Paul was circumcised when he was "called." He added: "Is any called in uncircumcision? let him not be circumcised.", and went on to argue that circumcision didn't matter: "Circumcision is nothing and uncircumcision is nothing. Keeping God's commands is what counts." ()
Later he more explicitly denounced the practice, rejecting and condemning those who promoted circumcision to Gentile Christians. He accused Galatian Christians who advocated circumcision of turning from the Spirit to the 'flesh'. And in says "Christ hath redeemed us from the 'curse of the law.' He accused circumcision advocates of wanting to make a good showing in the flesh and of glorying or boasting of the flesh . Some believe Paul wrote the entire book of Galatians attacking circumcision and requiring the keeping of Jewish law by Christians, saying in chapter five: "If ye be circumcised, Christ shall profit you nothing."
In a late letter he warned Christians to 'beware of the mutilation' (Strong's G2699), saying that Christians were the true circumcision because they worshipped in the Spirit of God ().
The Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers notes: "Paul, on the other hand, not only did not object to the observance of the Mosaic Law, as long as it did not interfere with the liberty of the Gentiles, but he conformed to its prescriptions when occasion required (). Thus he shortly after circumcised Timothy (), and he was in the very act of observing the Mosaic ritual when he was arrested at Jerusalem ( sqq.)."
Simon Peter, who for Catholic Christians is the first Pope, condemned circumcision for converts according to . Paul, the Apostle to the Gentiles, warned that the advocates of circumcision were "false brothers". (Gal. 2:4) When the various passages from the New Testament regarding circumcision are gathered together, a strongly negative view of circumcision emerges. [5] Some Biblical scholars think that the Epistle of Titus, generally attributed to Paul, may state that circumcision should be discouraged among Christians (Titus 1:10-16), though others believe this is merely a reference to Jews. Circumcision was so closely associated with Jewish men that Jewish Christians were referred to as "those of the circumcision" (e.g. Colossians 3:20) [6] or conversely Christians who were circumcised were referred to as Jewish Christians or Judaizers. These terms (circumcised/uncircumcised) are generally interpreted to mean Jews and Greeks, who were predominate, however it is an oversimplification as 1st century Iudaea Province also had some Jews who no longer circumcised, and some Greeks (called Proselytes or Judaizers) and others such as Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Arabs who did.
In the Gospel of Jesus is reported as giving this response to those who criticized him for healing on the Sabbath:
:Now if a man can be circumcised on the sabbath so that the Law of Moses is not broken, why are you angry with me for making a man whole and complete on a sabbath? (Jerusalem Bible)
This passage has been seen as a comment on the Rabbinic belief that circumcision heals the penis (Jerusalem Bible, note to John 7:23) or as a criticism of circumcision [7].
The Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentiles: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah states:
The Greek Orthodox Church celebrates the Circumcision of Christ on 1 January,[11] while Orthodox churches following the Julian calendar celebrate it on 14 January. The Russian Orthodox Church considers it a "Great Feast".[12] In the Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches it has been replaced by other commemorations.[13]
The Roman Catholic Church condemned circumcision for its members at the Council of Florence of 1442
Other faiths and traditions
Bahá'ís do not have any particular tradition or rituals regarding male circumcision, but view female circumcision as mutilation.[14]
The Druze have no male circumcision in their religion,[15] although, according to one source, it is practiced among those living in urban areas or outside the Middle East, mainly for hygienic reasons.[10]
There is no specific reference to male circumcision in the Hindu holy books [11], and Hindus in India generally do not practice circumcision. [12]
Sikh male infants are not circumcised.[16]
Circumcision in South Korea is largely the result of American cultural and military influence following the Korean War. The origin of circumcision in the Philippines is uncertain. One newspaper article speculates that it is due to the influence of western colonizers.[17] However, Antonio de Morga's seventeenth century ''History of the Philippine Islands'', speculates that it is due to Islamic influence.[18] In West Africa infant circumcision may have had tribal significance as a rite of passage or otherwise in the past; today in some non-Muslim Nigerian societies it is medicalised and is simply a cultural norm.[19] In early 2007 it was announced that rural aidpost orderlies in the East Sepik Province of Papua New Guinea are to undergo training in the circumcision of men and boys of all ages with a view to introducing the procedure as a means of prophylaxis against HIV/AIDS, which is becoming a significant problem in the country.[20]
Circumcision is part of initiation rites in some African, Pacific Islander, and Australian aboriginal traditions in areas such as Arnhem Land,[21] where the practice was introduced by Makassan traders from Sulawesi in the Indonesian Archipelago.[22] Circumcision ceremonies among certain Australian aboriginal societies are noted for their painful nature, including subincision for some aboriginal peoples in the Western Desert.[23]
In the Pacific, ritual circumcision is nearly universal in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and Vanuatu;[24] participation in the traditional land diving on Pentecost Island is reserved for those who have been circumcised.[25] Circumcision is also commonly practised in the Polynesian islands of Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Tikopia. In Samoa, it is accompanied by a celebration. Among some West African animist groups, such as the Dogon and Dowayo, it is taken to represent a removal of "feminine" aspects of the male, turning boys into fully masculine males.[26] In many West African traditional societies circumcision has become medicalised and is simply performed in infancy without ado or any particular conscious cultural significance . Among the Urhobo of southern Nigeria it is symbolic of a boy entering into manhood. The ritual expression, ''Omo te Oshare'' ("the boy is now man"), constitutes a rite of passage from one age set to another.[27] For Nilotic peoples, such as the Kalenjin and Maasai, circumcision is a rite of passage observed collectively by a number of boys every few years, and boys circumcised at the same time are taken to be members of a single age set.[28]
See also
★ Brit milah
★ Sex in the Bible
★ Murder in the Bible
★ History of male circumcision
★ Proselyte
★ Old Testament#Christian view of the Law
References
1. Religious circumcision: a Jewish view, , Frederick, M., Hodges, The Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 2001
2. Religious circumcision: a Jewish view, , J.M., Glass, BJU International, 1999
3. Question #9412: Circumcision: how it is done and the rulings on it
4. Question #7073: The health and religious benefits of circumcision
5. Hamdullah Aydın, M.D. and Zeynep Gülçat, Ph.D., "Turkey," in ''The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality'', http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/turkey.html#5 retrieved 8 July 2007.
6. Iftikhar Ahmad Jan, "Circumcision in babies and children with Plastibell technique: An easy procedure with minimal complications - Experience of 316 cases," Pak J Med Sci 2004, 20(3) 175-180.
7. Iran The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality
8. Kamyar M. Hedayat, MD and Roya Pirzadeh, MD, "Issues in Islamic Biomedical Ethics: A Primer for the Pediatrician," ''Pediatrics'' Vol. 108 No. 4 October 2001, pp. 965-971, http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?print=3107 retrieved 11 October 2006.
9. Mattson CL, Bailey RC, Muga R, Poulussen R, Onyango T (2005) Acceptability of male circumcision and predictors of circumcision preference among men and women in Nyanza province Kenya. AIDS Care 17:182–194.
10. "making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18;, Tosef.; Talmud tractes Shabbat xv. 9; Yevamot 72a, b; Yerushalmi Peah i. 16b; Yevamot viii. 9a; [4]; Catholic Encyclopedia: Circumcision: "To this epispastic operation performed on the athletes to conceal the marks of circumcision St. Paul alludes, me epispastho (1 Corinthians 7:18)."
11. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese calendar of Holy Days
12. Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarchate of Moscow
13. For example, "The Calendar of the Church Year" in The (Online) Book of Common Prayer (Episcopal Church in the United States of America), http://www.bcponline.org/ retrieved 11 October 2006.
14. WHEN YOUR PATIENT IS A BAHA'I
15. Who Are the Druze?
16. Guidelines for health Care Providers Interacting with Patients of the Sikh Religion and their Families
17. Passage to manhood Rommel G. Rebollido
18.
19. Ajuwon et al., "Indigenous surgical practices in rural southwestern Nigeria: Implications for disease," Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379-384 Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379-384 Retrieved 3 October 2006
20. "PNG circumcision campaign hopes to halt HIV,"
21.
22. Migration and Trade
23.
24. RECENT GUEST SPEAKER
25. Weird & Wonderful
26. Circumcision amongst the Dogon
27. Aesthetics and Rituals of the Opha Ceremony among the Urhobo People, , John Tokpabere, Agberia, Journal of Asian and African Studies, 2006
28. Masai of Kenya
2. Leonard B. Glick. Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. (ISBN 0-19-517674-X)
External links
★ Jewish Encyclopedia: Circumcision
★ Catholic Encyclopedia: Circumcision
★ Gentiles and Circumcision
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