'Christian
theology' is
reasoned discourse concerning
Christian faith. Christian theologians use
rational analysis and argument to
understand,
explain, test,
critique, defend or promote Christianity. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian understand Christianity more truly,
[1] make
comparisons between Christianity and other traditions,
[2] defend Christianity against critics, facilitate Christianity's reform,
[3] assist in the
propagation of Christianity,
[4] draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need,
[5] or for a variety of other reasons.
Christian theology has permeated much of
Western culture, especially in pre-modern Europe. Therefore, because of their interdependence a proper understanding of either Western culture or Christian theology requires a full understanding of both.
The emergence of Christian theology
The emergence of Christian theology has sometimes been presented as the triumph of Hellenistic
rationality over the Hebraic
faith of Jesus and the early disciples. The early African theologian
Tertullian, for instance, complained that the 'Athens' of philosophy was corrupting the 'Jerusalem' of faith.
[6] More recent discussions have qualified and nuanced this picture.
★ From the very beginning of the Christian movement, followers of Jesus tried to make sense of the impact of Jesus of Nazareth, and began arguing about differing ways of making sense. There has never been an uncontested, unrationalized Christian faith.
[7].
★ These processes of making sense initially drew upon the ideas and narratives of contemporary Judaism, which was already Hellenized in various degrees. As time went by, ideas and narratives from other Hellenistic context were drawn on, but the Jewish scriptures remained a key driver of theological development, and too sharp a distinction between Hebraic and Hellenistic is unsustainable. Some elements of early Christian theologizing previously thought to be thoroughly 'Hellenistic' (e.g., the Prologue of John's Gospel) are now regularly argued to be thoroughly Jewish.
★ The ideas and narratives drawn on in this process were transformed as they were given a new context in Christian practices of devotion, community—formation and evangelism—and the extent to which borrowings from Hellenistic culture (for instance) were given new meanings in this process should not be underestimated.
[8]
★ One of the characteristics of those strands of early Christianity (in the second and third centuries) sometimes called 'proto-orthodox' (because they are the most direct ancestors of the forms of Christianity that in the fourth century were defined as Orthodox), invested a great deal of time and energy in communication between widely spread conversations, and in pursuing a deep interest in each other's beliefs and practices. This concern and communication seems to have been as much a driver of the development of theological activity as the desire to communicate Christianity to, or make it acceptable in, a Hellenistic culture.
[9]
The history of Christian theology
Main articles: History of Christian theology
See also:
★ the main
theology article, which includes material on the history of the word "theology" in Christianity, and
★ the main article on the
history of theology, which presents the story of Christian, Jewish and Islamic theology.
Divisions of Christian Theology
There are large numbers of ways of categorizing Christian different approaches to Christian theology.
Sub-disciplines
Christian theologians may be specialists in one or more theological sub-disciplines. These are the kinds of phrases that one finds in quite a few job titles: 'Professor of x', 'Senior Lecturer in y':
★
Apologetics—studying Christian theology as it compares to other
worldviews in order to give a defense of faith and to challenge others' beliefs.
★
Biblical hermeneutics—interpretation of the
Bible, often with particular emphasis on the nature and constraints of contemporary interpretation;
★
Biblical Studies—interpretation of the
Bible, often with particular emphasis on historical-critical investigation;
★
Biblical Theology—interpretation of the
Bible, often with particular emphasis on links between biblical texts and the topics of systematic or dogmatic theology.
★
Constructive Theology—generally another name for
Systematic Theology; also specifically a
Postmodernist approach to
Systematic theology, applying (among other things)
Feminist theory,
Queer theory,
Deconstructionism, and
Hermeneutics to theological topics.
★
Dogmatic theology—studying theology (or
dogma) as it developed in different
church denominations.
★
Ecumenical Theology—comparing the doctrines of the diverse churches, the eastern orthodox, the roman catholic and protestant, (calvinistic, lutheran, anglican) in order to find solutions of the controverses in order finally to obtain restoration of the One Church Catholic.
★
Exegesis—interpretation of the
Bible, often with particular emphasis on interpretation for ecclesial use;
★
Historical Theology—studying Christian theology as it has developed (and is developing) in
history.
★
Homiletics—in theology the application of the general principles of rhetoric to the specific department of public preaching.
★
Moral Theology—explores the
moral and
ethical dimensions of the religious life
★
Natural theology—the discussion of those aspects of theology that can be investigated without the help of revelation, scriptures or tradition (sometimes contrasted with "positive theology")—the discussion of those aspects of theology.
★ Patristics or
Patrology—studies the teaching of
Church Fathers, or the development of Christian ideas and practice in the period of the Church Fathers.
★
Philosophical Theology—philosophical analysis of theological topics.
★ Pragmatic or
Practical Theology—studying theology as it relates to everyday living and service to God, including serving as a
religious minister.
★ Spiritual theology—studying theology as a means to
orthopraxy:
Scripture and
tradition are both used as guides for spiritual growth and discipline
★
Systematic theology (doctrinal theology, dogmatic theology or philosophical theology)—focused on the attempt to arrange and interpret the ideas current in the religion. This is also associated with
Constructive Theology.
★
Theological aesthetics— interdisciplinary study of
theology and
aesthetics /
the arts.
Major topics
These topics crop up again and again in Christian theology; they are the main recurrent 'loci' around which Christian theological discussion revolves.
★
Bible. The nature and means of its
inspiration, etc.; including
Hermeneutics—the development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts
★
Eschatology—the study of the ''last things'', or
end times. Covers subjects such as death and the
afterlife, the end of
history, the end of the
world, the
last judgment, the nature of
hope and progress, etc.
★
Christology—the study of
Jesus Christ, of his nature(s), and of the relationship between his divinity and humanity;
★
Creation theology
★
Divine providence.
★
Ecclesiology (sometimes a subsection of missiology)—the study of the
Christian Church, including the
institutional structure,
sacraments and practices (especially the
worship of God) thereof.
★
Missiology (sometimes a subsection of ecclesiology)—God's will in the world, missions, evangelism, etc.
★
Pneumatology—the study of the
Holy Spirit, sometimes also 'geist' as in Hegelianism and other philosophico-theological systems;
★
Soteriology—the study of the nature and means of
salvation; might include
Hamartiology—the study of
sin;
Law and Gospel—the study of the relationship between
Divine Law and
Divine Grace; justification; sanctification.
★
Theological anthropology—the study of
humanity, especially as it relates to the divine
★
Theology Proper—the study of
God's attributes, nature, and relation to the world. Might include
Theodicy—Attempts at reconciling the existence of
evil and suffering in the world with the nature and justice of God; and
Apophatic theology (or negative theology; sometimes contrasted with "cataphatic theology")—the discussion of what God is ''not'', or the investigation of how language about God breaks down. See
the nature of God in Western theology.
A classical pattern
Roman Catholic theology
One important branch of Christian theology is
Roman Catholic theology which has these major teachings:
★
Absolution (sacerdotal remittance of sin);
★ The
Apostolic Succession (i.e., of bishops and/or the Pope from the original Apostles);
★
Infant Baptism;
★
Ecumenism (the move to reunite churches);
★
Icon veneration;
★ The
Immaculate Conception of Mary;
★
Indulgences (i.e., remissions by the Church of some penalties for sin);
★
Mary (Mary as
Theotokos (the idea that was therefore the "Mother of God"; as perpetually
virgin; the
Assumption of Mary;
★ The
Pope (i.e., the belief that the Pope is the successor of
St. Peter, the "Rock" on which the Church is built, and therefore head of Christianity);
★
Purgatory (a "holding place" after death where souls are purified before entering heaven);
★
Sacerdotalism (priesthood as intermediary and sacred office);
★ The
Sacraments;
Transubstantiation;
★
Sainthood and
canonization;
★
Papal Infallibility (the Pope being
infallible on matters of religion and morality);
★
Tradition (i.e., its authority relative to Scripture).
Controversial movements
Christians have had theological disagreements since the time of
Jesus. Theological disputes have given rise to many
schisms and different
Christian denominations, sects and movements.
Pre-Reformation
★
Arianism: doctrines regarding Christ's divinity;
★
Donatism
★
Ebionitism
★
Gnosticism: Generally rejected the goodness of the physical to emphasize the spiritual, also emphasized "hidden teachings."
★
Judaizers
★
Manichaeism
★
Marcionism
★
Monarchianism: doctrines regarding Christ's
divinity.
★
Monophysitism: doctrines regarding Christ's divinity
★
Montanism
★
Nazarenes
★
Nicolationism
★
Nontrinitarianism
★
Novatianism
★
Pelagianism: denial of original sin and helplessness of sinner to save himself, affirmation of free will.
★
Quartodecimanism:
Easter controversy
★
Sabellianism: doctrines regarding the Trinity, also known as "
modalism."
★
Simonianism
Post-Reformation
Since the Reformation emphasized the rights of Christians to expound their own views of theology, most theological distinctions have occurred between the various Protestant denominations. Some elaboration of Roman Catholic doctrines; however, have been promulgated since that time. The differences between many of the denominations are relatively minor, and this has helped
ecumenical efforts in recent times.
★
Adventism: typified by the
Seventh-day Adventist Church.
★
Anabaptism
★
Anglicanism
★
Anglo-Catholicism:
high church theology of
Anglicanism.
★
Arminianism: reaction to Calvinism. Key doctrine of Anglican and
Methodist churches, adopted by some
Baptists and
Congregationalists.
★ Brethrenism: Anabaptist-Pietist, with Open and Exclusive streams.
★
Calvinism
★
Charismaticism: charismatic movement in traditional Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, often associated with
glossolalia.
★
Congregationalism: form of governance used in Congregationalist, Baptist and Pentecostal churches in which each congregation is self-governing and independent of all others.
★
Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation.
★
Creation Spirituality:
Panentheist theology.
★
Deism: replaces faith with reason, believes God does not intervene in earthly affairs.
★
Dispensationalism: Belief in a conservative, biblically literalist philosophy of history that by stressing the distinction between Israel and the Church, rejects Replacement Theology.
★
Evangelicalism: conservative Protestant theology. Some churches have evangelical and liberal streams.
★
Latitudinarianism: broad church theology of Anglicanism.
★
Liberalism: Belief in interpreting the Bible to allow for the maximum amount of individual freedom.
★
Low church:
puritanical /
Evangelical theology of Anglicanism.
★
Methodism: form of governance and doctrine used in Methodist Church.
★
Modernism: Belief that truth changes so doctrine must change in light of new information or trends.
★
Latter Day Saint movement (
Mormonism): Belief that the
Book of Mormon and others to be additional divine scriptures; belief in living prophets; generally reject the
Nicene creed and other early creeds.
★
New Thought: Movement based on Nineteenth century
New England belief in positive thinking. Several denominations arose from it including
Unity Church, and
Religious Science.
★
Nonconformism: advocacy of religious liberty. Includes Quakers, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists and Salvationists.
★
Nontrinitarianism: Rejection of the doctrine of
Trinity.
★
Pentecostalism: doctrine that charismatic gifts have been restored to the church.
★
Pietism: A stream of
Lutheranism placing renewed emphasis on the Bible and a universal priesthood.
★
Presbyterianism: form of governance used in Presbyterian and Reformed churches.
★
Puritanism: Movement to cleanse Episcopalianism of any "ritualistic" aspects.
★
Supersessionism: Belief that the Church, the Body of Christ, is the people of God in the new covenant.
★
Restoration Movement: 19th century attempt to return to a
New Testament model of the church
★
Restorationism: includes the
Millerites-
Seventh-day Adventists and Latter Day Saints.
★
Salvation Army: It is an offshoot of the Methodist Church
★
Tractarianism:
Oxford Movement. It led to Anglo-Catholicism.
★
Ultramontanism: A French Roman Catholic reaction to church-state separation.
★
Unification Church
★
Unitarianism: Rejects Trinity and divinity of Christ.
★
Universalism: In various forms, the belief that all people will receive salvation.
★ Wesleyanism: A stream of Methodism. The title was reintroduced by a schism in the
New Zealand church.
Contemporary Theological movements
In addition to the movements listed above, the following are some of the movements found amongst Christian theologians:
★
Black theology
★
Anarchism
★
Conservative Christianity.
★
Covenant Theology, an interpretive grid that understands God's plans in the Old and New Testaments as being a result of God's covenant with his chosen people. Covenant theology is one way to approach the subdiscipline of biblical theology; compare to Dispensationalism.
★
Dispensationalism—an interpretative grid that views God's relationship with the created order as passing through successive "dispensations," in each of which the covenants of the previous era may no longer be valid. Dispensationalism is one way to approach the subdiscipline of biblical theology; compare to Covenant Theology.
★
Orthodox Christianity
★
Evangelicalism
★
Feminist theology
★
Fundamentalism
★
Holocaust theology (In response to the horrors of
the Holocaust especially in relation to
Theodicy)
★
Liberal theology
★
Liberation theology
★
Lutheranism
★
Methodism
★
Narrative theology—studying a narrative presentation of the faith rather than dogmatic development.
★
Neo-orthodoxy (also known as "dialectical theology" and "crisis theology"
★
New Church
★
New Covenant Theology
★
Paleo-Orthodoxy
★
Pentecostalism
★
Personalism
★
Postliberal theology
★
Postmodern theology
★
Process theology
★
Queer Theology
★
Quakerism
★
Restorationism
★ Revisionist theology
★
Roman Catholicism
★
Thomism
★
Transcendental Theology
Notes
1. See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, ''Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)
2. See, e.g., David Burrell, ''Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions'' (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)
3. See, e.g., John Shelby Spong, ''Why Christianity Must Change or Die'' (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)
4. See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al (eds), ''Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity'' (London: Continuum, 2003)
5. For example, see Timothy Gorringe, ''Crime'', Changing Society and the Churches Series (London:SPCK, 2004)
6. Tertullian, ''De praescriptione haereticorum'' 7.
7. See, for example, Stephen Sykes, ''The Identity of Christianity'' (London: SPCK, 1984) or Wayne Meeks, 'Inventing the Christ: multicultural process and poetry among the first Christians', ''Studia Theologica'' 58.1, pp.77-96, for arguments along these lines
8. Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)
9. See Rowan Williams, 'Does it make sense to speak of pre–Nicene orthodoxy?' in idem (ed.) ''The Making of Orthodoxy'' (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp.1-23.
References
★ Andcone, J.H., eds. ''Black Theology; A Documentary History, 1966–1979.'' Orbis Books, 1979
★ Appiah-Kubi, K and Torres, S., eds. ''African Theology en Route,'' Orbis Books, 1979
★ Bonino, J.M. ''Doing theology in a Revolutionary situation,'' Philadelphia:Fortress Press, 1975.
★ ''Christian Theology Reader'' by
Alister McGrath. ISBN 0–631–20637-X
★ ''Christian Theology: An Introduction'' by
Alister McGrath. ISBN 0–631–22528–5
★ Elwood, D.J., ed. ''Asian Christian Theology; Emerging Themes.'' Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1979
★ Fuller, Reginald H.
''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'' (1965). ISBN 0–684–15532-X
★ Gonzalez, Justo L. ''The Story of Christianity'' (1984, 1985, 1999). ISBN 1–56563–522–1)
★ Hill, Jonathan 2003) ''The History of Christian Thought''. ISBN 0–7459–5093–0 and 0830827765
★ Koyama, Kosuke, Waterbuffalo Theology. Orbis books, 1974
★ Leith, John H. ''Introduction to the Reformed Tradition'' (1978). ISBN 0–8042–0479–9)
★ Miranda, J. ''Being and the Messiah.'' Orbis Books, 1974.
★ Moore, B., ed. ''The Challenge of Black Theology in South Africa.'' Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1974.
★ Muzorewa, H. ''African Theology: Its Origin and Development.'' Orbis Books, 1984.
★ Sobrino, J. ''Christology on the Crossroads.'' Orbis Books, 1978
★ ''Systematic Theology'', an
ecumenical trilogy by
Thomas Oden
★
★ Volume 1: ''The Living God'' (1992). ISBN 0–06–066363–4
★
★ Volume 2: ''The Word of Life'' (1992). ISBN 0–06–066364–2
★
★ Volume 3: ''Life in the Spirit'' (1994). ISBN 0–06–066362–6
Quotations
''
See also
★
Biblical canon
★
Christian anarchism
★
Christian ecumenism
★
Christian worship
★
Eastern Orthodoxy
★
Ecumenism
★
Emerging Church
★
Fundamentalist Christianity
★
Heresy
★
Liberal Christianity
★
List of Christian theologians
★
List of Methodist theologians
★
Neo-Orthodoxy
★
Protestant Reformation
★
Roman Catholicism
★
Theology
★
Wesleyan Quadrilateral
★
Word of Faith
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