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'Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu' (before January 18, 1689 in Bordeaux – February 10, 1755, was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Era of the Enlightment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He was largely responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine Empire.

Contents

Biography

Political views

Notes

Further reading

List of works

See also

External links

Biography

After having studied at the Catholic College of Juilly, he married Jeanne de Latrigue, a Protestant who brought him a substantial dowry when he was 26. The next year, he inherited a fortune upon the death of his uncle, as well as the title Baroon de Montesquieu and Président à Mortier in the Parlement of Bordeaux. By that time, England had declared itself a constitutional monarchy in the wake of its Glorious Revolution (1688–89), and had joined with Scotland in the Union of 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. And in 1715 the long-reigning Sun King, Louis XIV died and was succeeded by the weaker and more feeble Louis XV. These national transformations impacted Montesquieu greatly; he would later refer to them repeatedly in his work.
Soon afterwards he achieved literary success with the publication of his ''Lettres persanes'' (''Persian Letters'', 1721), a satire based on the imaginary correspondence of an Oriental visitor to Paris, pointing out the absurdities of contemporary society. He next published ''Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence'' (''Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans'', 1734), considered by some scholars a transition from ''The Persian Letters'' to his master work. ''De l'Esprit des Lois'' (''The Spirit of the Laws'') was originally published anonymously in 1748 and quickly rose to a position of enormous influence. In France, it met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime. The Roman Catholic Church banned ''l'Esprit'' – along with many of Montesquieu's other works – in 1751 and included it on the papacy's notorious Index. But from the rest of Europe, especially Britain, it received the highest praise.
Montesquieu was also highly regarded in the British colonies in America as a champion of British liberty (though not of American independence). Political scientist Donald Lutz found that Montesquieu was the most frequently quoted authority on government and politics in colonial pre-revolutionary British America.^[1] Following the American secession, Montesquieu's work remained a powerful influence on many of the American Founders, most notably James Madison of Virginia, the "Father of the Constitution." Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be afraid of another" reminded Madison and others that a free and stable foundation for their new national government required a clearly defined and balanced separation of powers.
Besides composing additional works on society and politics, Montesquieu traveled for a number of years through Europe including Austria and Hungary, spending a year in Italy and eighteen months in England before resettling in France. He was troubled by poor eyesight, and was completely blind by the time he died from a high fever in 1755. He was buried in L'église Saint-Sulpice in Paris, France.

Political views

Montesquieu's most radical work divided French society into three classes (or ''trias politica'', a term he coined): the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the commons. Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power existing: the sovereign and the administrative. The administrative powers were the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. These should be separate from and dependent upon each other so that the influence of any one power would not be able to exceed that of the other two, either singly or in combination. This was radical because it completely eliminated the three ''Estates'' structure of the French Monarchy: the clergy, the aristocracy, and the people at large represented by the Estates-General, thereby erasing the last vestige of a feudalistic structure.
Likewise, there were three main forms of government, each supported by a social "principle": monarchies (free governments headed by a hereditary figure, e.g. king, queen, emperor), which rely on the principle of honor; republics (free governments headed by popularly elected leaders), which rely on the principle of virtue; and despotisms (enslaved governments headed by dictators), which rely on fear. The free governments are dependent on fragile constitutional arrangements. Montesquieu devotes four chapters of ''The Spirit of the Laws'' to a discussion of England, a contemporary free government, where liberty was sustained by a balance of powers. Montesquieu worried that in France the intermediate powers (i.e., the nobility) which moderated the power of the prince were being eroded.
Like many of his generation, Montesquieu held a number of views that might today be judged controversial. While he endorsed the idea that a woman could head a government, he held that she could not be effective as the head of a family. He firmly accepted the role of a hereditary aristocracy and the value of primogeniture. His views have also been abused by modern revisionists; for instance, even though Montesquieu was ahead of his time as an ardent opponent of slavery, he has been quoted out of context in attempts to show he supported it.
One of his more exotic ideas, outlined in ''The Spirit of the Laws'' and hinted at in ''Persian Letters'', is the meteorological climate theory, which holds that climate may substantially influence the nature of man and his society. He goes so far as to assert that certain climates are superior to others, the temperate climate of France being ideal. His view is that people living in very warm countries are "too hot-tempered," while those in northern countries are "icy" or "stiff." The climate of middle Europe is therefore optimal. On this point, Montesquieu may well have been influenced by similar statements in ''Germania'' by Tacitus, one of Montesquieu's favorite authors. In a different perspective Louis Althusser, in his analysis of Montesquieu's work ^[2], has pointed out the seminal character of the inclusion of material factors, such as climate, in the explanation of social dynamics and political forms.

Notes

1. "The Relative Influence of European Writers on Late Eighteenth-Century American Political Thought," ''American Political Science Review'' 78,1(March, 1984), 189-197.
2. L. Althusser, ''Politics and History: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Marx'', NLB, 1972.

Further reading

★ Pangle, Thomas, ''Montesquieu’s Philosophy of Liberalism'' (Chicago: 1989 rpt.; 1973).

★ Person, James Jr., ed. “Montesquieu” (excerpts from chap. 8) in ''Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800'', (Gale Publishing: 1988), vol. 7, pp. 350-52.

★ Shackleton, Robert. ''Montesquieu; a Critical Biography''. (Oxford: 1961).

★ Schaub, Diana J. ''Erotic Liberalism: Women and Revolution in Montesquieu's'' 'Persian Letters'. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995).

★ Spurlin, Paul M. ''Montesquieu in America, 1760-1801'' (New York: Octagon Books, 1961).

List of works

★ ''Les causes de l'écho'' (''The Causes of an Echo'')

★ ''Les glandes rénales'' (''The Renal Glands'')

★ ''La cause de la pesanteur des corps'' (''The Cause of Gravity of Bodies'')

★ ''La damnation éternelle des païens'' (''The Eternal Damnation of the Pagans'', 1711)

★ ''Système des Idées'' (''System of Ideas'', 1716)

★ ''Lettres persanes'' (''Persian Letters'', 1721)

★ ''Le Temple de Gnide'' (''The Temple of Gnide'', a novel; 1724)

★ ''Arsace et Isménie'' (''(The True History of) Arsace and Isménie'', a novel; 1730)

★ ''Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence'' (''Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans'', 1734)

★ ''De l'esprit des lois'' (''(On) The Spirit of the Laws'', 1748)

★ ''La défense de «L'Esprit des lois»'' (''In Defence of "The Spirit of the Laws"'', 1748)

★ ''Pensées suivies de Spicilège'' (''Thoughts after Spicilège'')

See also

★ Liberalism

★ Contributions to liberal theory

★ French Government

★ Napoleon

External links

★ Free full-text works online

★ Montesquieu in The Catholic Encyclopedia.

★ Montesquieu in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

★ Timeline of Montesquieu's Life