The
armed forces of the
United Kingdom, commonly known as the 'British Armed Forces' or 'Her Majesty's Armed Forces', and sometimes legally the 'Armed Forces of the Crown',
[1] encompasses a
navy,
army, and an
air force. With a reported personnel strength of 429,500 in 2006 (195,900 regular force, 191,300 regular reserve, and 42,300 volunteer reserve), the British Armed Forces constitutes one of the largest militaries in
Europe, though only the 22nd largest in the world by number of troops.
[2] The British Armed Forces however have the second highest expenditure (only behind U.S.) of any military in the world. Their
Commander-in-Chief is the
British monarch,
Queen Elizabeth II and they are managed by the
Defence Council of the
Ministry of Defence. Consistent with longstanding constitutional convention, however, the
Prime Minister holds ''de facto'' authority over the armed forces.
The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its
overseas territories, promoting
Britain's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts.
[3] They are active and regular participants in
NATO and other coalition operations.
Recent operations have included wars in
Afghanistan and
Iraq (2001 and 2003 respectively), intervention in
Sierra Leone (2000), and ongoing peacekeeping responsibilities in the
Balkans and
Cyprus. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained at
Ascension Island,
Belize,
Brunei,
Canada,
Diego Garcia, the
Falkland Islands,
Germany,
Gibraltar,
Kenya, and the
Sovereign Base Areas (
Cyprus).
[4][5]
History
Origin
British military history is long, complex and greatly influential in World history, especially since the
17th Century, but it seems to have had rather simple origins. Many today attribute the foundation of the first native armed forces in Britain to
Alfred the Great. Important conflicts in which the British took part later on in history include the
Seven Years' War and the
Napoleonic Wars of the
18th Century/early
19th Century, the
Crimean War of the mid 19th Century, and the
First and
Second World Wars of the
20th Century. The
British Empire, which reached its apogee in the
1920s, was the largest empire in history; almost a third of the World's population were subjects of the
British Crown and it controlled a quarter of the World's total land area (and arguably its seas).
The current structure of defence management in the United Kingdom was set in place in
1964 when the modern day
Ministry of Defence (MoD) was created (an earlier form had existed since
1940). The MoD assumed the roles of the
Admiralty, the
War Office and the
Air Ministry.
Cold War
Post-World War II economic and political decline, as well as changing attitudes in British society and government, was reflected by the Armed Forces contracting global role.
[6][7][8] Britain's protracted decline was dramatically epitomised by its political defeat during the
Suez War of 1956.
[9] The
1957 Defence White Paper decided to abolish conscription and reduce the size of the Armed Forces from 690,000 to 375,000 by 1962.
[10] Seeking an inexpensive alternative to maintaining a large conventional military, the government pursued a doctrine of
nuclear deterrence.
[11][12] This initially consisted of free-fall bombs operated by the RAF, but these were eventually superseded by the submarine-launched
Polaris ballistic missile. While assurances had been made to the United States that Britain would maintain a presence "
East of Suez", a process of gradual withdrawal from its eastern commitments was undertaken in the 1960s, primarily for economic reasons.
[13][14] By the mid-1970s, Britain had withdrawn permanently deployed forces from
Aden,
Bahrain,
Malaysia,
Mauritius,
Oman,
Sharjah, and
Singapore. Agreements with Malta (expired 1979) and South Africa (terminated 1975) also ended.
With a permanent presence east of Suez effectively reduced to
Hong Kong (up to 1997) and
Brunei, the Armed Forces reconfigured to focus on the responsibilities allocated to the services during the
Cold War.
[15] Substantial forces were thus committed to NATO in Europe and elsewhere; by 1985, 72,929 personnel were stationed in Continental Europe.
[17][16][19] The
British Army of the Rhine and
RAF Germany consequently represented the largest and most important overseas commitments that the British Armed Forces had during this period.
[20] The Royal Navy's fleet developed an
anti-submarine warfare specialisation, with a particular focus on countering Soviet submarines in the Eastern Atlantic and
North Sea.
In the process of this transition and due to economic constraints, four conventional aircraft carriers and two "commando" carriers decommissioned between 1967 and 1984.
[21][22] With the cancellation of the
CVA-01 project, three
''Invincible''-class STOVL aircraft carriers, originally designed as "Through-Deck Cruisers", became their ultimate replacements.
While this focus on NATO obligations increased in prominence during the 1970s, low-intensity conflicts in
Northern Ireland and Oman emerged as the primary operational concerns of the British Armed Forces.
[23] These conflicts had followed a spate of insurgencies against British colonial occupation in Aden, Cyprus, Kenya, and Malaysia.
An
undeclared war with Indonesia had also occurred in Borneo during the 1960s, and recurring civil unrest in the declining number of British colonies often required military assistance.
Recent history
Three major reviews of the British Armed Forces have been conducted since
the end of the Cold War. The
Conservative government produced the
Options for Change review in the 1990s, seeking to benefit from a perceived post-Cold War "
peace dividend".
[24] All three services experienced considerable reductions in manpower, equipment, and infrastructure.
[25] Though the Soviet Union had disintegrated, a presence in Germany was retained, albeit in the reduced form of
British Forces Germany. Experiences during the
First Gulf War prompted renewed efforts to enhance joint operational cohesion and efficiency among the services by establishing a
Permanent Joint Headquarters in 1996.
[26][27]
An increasingly international role for the British Armed Forces has been pursued since the Cold War's end.
[28] This has entailed the Armed Forces often constituting a major component in
peacekeeping missions under the auspices of the
United Nations or
NATO, and other multinational operations. Consistent undermanning and the reduced size of the Armed Forces has, however, highlighted the problem of "overstretch" in recent years.
[29] This has reportedly contributed to personnel retention difficulties and challenged the military's ability to sustain its overseas commitments.
The
Strategic Defence Review – described as "foreign-policy-led" – was published in 1998.
[32][33] Expeditionary warfare and tri-service integration were central to the review, which sought to improve efficiency and reduce expenditure by consolidating resources.
[34][35] Most of the Armed Forces' helicopters were collected under a
single command and a
Joint Force Harrier was established in 2000, containing the Navy and RAF's fleet of
Harrier Jump Jets. A
Joint Rapid Reaction Force was formed in 1999, with significant tri-service resources at its disposal.
[36]
The first major post-
11 September restructuring was announced in the 2004
Delivering Security in a Changing World: Future Capabilities review, continuing a vision of "mobility" and "expeditionary warfare" articulated in the SDR.
[37][38] Future equipment projects reflecting this direction featured in the review, including the procurment of two large aircraft carriers and a series of
medium-sized vehicles for the Army. Reductions in manpower, equipment, and infrastructure were also announced. The decision to reduce the Army's regular infantry to 36 battalions (from 40) and amalgamate the remaining single-battalion regiments was controversial, especially in Scotland and among former soldiers.
[39] Envisaging a rebalanced composition of more rapidly deployable light and medium forces, the review announced that a regiment of
Challenger 2 main battle tanks and a regiment of
AS-90 self-propelled artillery would be converted to lighter roles.
[40]Current strength
The United Kingdom fields one of the most powerful, technologically advanced, and comprehensive armed forces in the world. The UK has the second highest military expenditure in the world
[41] despite only having the 22nd highest number of troops. It is also the second largest spender on military science, engineering and technology
[42] Despite Britain's wide ranging capabilities, recent defence policy has a stated assumption that any large operation would be undertaken as part of a coalition. Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq (
''Granby'',
''Desert Fox'' and
''Telic'') may all be taken as precedent – indeed the last large scale military action in which the British armed forces fought alone was
the
Falklands War of 1982.
The
Royal Navy is the second largest navy in the world in terms of gross tonnage, with
91 commissioned ships. The
Naval Service (which comprises the Royal Navy and
Royal Marines) had a strength of 35,470 in July 2006
[43] and is charged with custody of the United Kingdom's
independent strategic nuclear deterrent consisting of four
Trident missile submarines, while the Royal Marines provide commando units for amphibious assault and for specialist reinforcement forces in and beyond the NATO area. According to the same source, the
British Army had a strength of 100,010, while the
Royal Air Force had a strength of 45,210. This puts the total number of regular Armed Forces personnel at 180,690 (not including civilians), nine percent of whom were women. This number is supported by reserve forces, including over 35,000 from the
Territorial Army. The total number of serving personnel, including reserve forces, is therefore in the region of 225,000 (taking into account Navy, Marines and Air Force reserves).
Structure
Command organisation
As
head of state, the
British monarch,
Queen Elizabeth II, is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
[44] Longstanding constitutional convention, however, has vested ''de facto'' executive authority in the office of
Prime Minister and the
Cabinet.
[45] The
Ministry of Defence is the
Government department and highest level of military headquarters charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the Armed Forces; it employed 103,930 civilians in 2006
[46][47] The department is controlled by the
Secretary of State for Defence and contains three deputy appointments: Minister of State for the Armed Forces, Minister for Defence Procurement, and Minister for Veterans' Affairs.
Responsibility for the management of the forces is delegated to a number of committees: the
Defence Council,
Chiefs of Staff Committee,
Defence Management Board, and three single-service boards. The Defence Council, composed of senior representatives of the services and the Ministry of Defence, provides the "formal legal basis for the conduct of defence".
[48] The three constituent single-service committees (
Admiralty Board,
Army Board, and
Air Force Board) are chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence.
The
Chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an
Admiral,
Air Chief Marshal, or
General. Before the practice was discontinued in the 1990s, those who were appointed to the position of CDS had been elevated to the most senior rank in their respective service (a
5-star rank).
[49] The CDS, along with the Permanent Under Secretary, are the principal advisers to the departmental minister. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs: the
First Sea Lord, the
Chief of the General Staff and the
Chief of the Air Staff.
Naval Service
The
Naval Service consists of the
Royal Navy (including the
Submarine Service and
Fleet Air Arm) and the
Royal Marines.
[50][51] As of
1 February 2007, a
fleet of 88 vessels (including an aircraft carrier in reserve) is maintained by the Royal Navy, assisted by 23 vessels of the civilian
Royal Fleet Auxiliary.
[52][53][54]
Royal Navy
Referred to as the "
Senior Service" by virtue of it being the oldest service within the British Armed Forces, the Royal Navy had a strength of 39,440 in April, 2007.
The Navy has been structured around a single fleet since the abolition of the
Eastern and
Western fleets in 1971.
[55] Command of deployable assets is exercised by the
Commander-in-Chief Fleet, who also has authority over the Royal Marines, and the civilian Royal Fleet Auxiliary.
[56] Personnel matters are the responsibility of the
Second Sea Lord/Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command, an appointment usually held by a vice-admiral.
[57]
The United Kingdom's nuclear deterrent is carried aboard the navy's
''Vanguard''-class of four nuclear ballistic-missile submarines. The surface fleet consists of
carriers,
destroyers,
frigates,
amphibious assault ships,
patrol ships,
mine-countermeasures, and miscellaneous vessels. A
submarine service has existed within the Royal Navy for over 100-years. The service possessed a combined fleet of diesel-electric and nuclear-powered submarines in the early 1990s. Following the Options for Change defence review, diesel-electric submarines were withdrawn and the "
hunter-killer" fleet is now exclusively nuclear-powered.
Royal Marines
The infantry component of the Naval Service is the Corps of Royal Marines, which had a reported strength of approximately 7,400 in 2006.
Consisting of a single manoeuvre brigade (
3 Commando) and various independent units, the Royal Marines specialise in
amphibious,
arctic, and
mountain warfare.
[58] Contained within 3 Commando Brigade are three attached army units; an infantry battalion (from April 2008), an artillery regiment, and an engineer regiment.
[59] The
Commando Logistic Regiment consists of personnel from the Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Navy.
[60]
British Army
Main articles: Structure of the British Army
The regular
British Army had a strength of 110,580 in April, 2007, while its reserve component, the
Territorial Army, numbered 38,500.
The British Army is undergoing a restructuring programme envisaged in the 2003 defence white paper,
Delivering Security in a Changing World, and the subsequent announcement of the Future Army Structure (FAS).
[40]
The army consists of three TLBs (Top Level Budget): United Kingdom
Land Command, HQ Adjutant-General, and
HQ Northern Ireland.
[63] Deployable combat formations consist of two divisions (
1st Armoured and
3rd Mechanised) and eight brigades.
[64][65] Within the United Kingdom, operational and non-deployable units are administered by three regionally-defined "regenerative"" divisions (2nd, 4th, and 5th) and
London District.
[66]
The core element of the Army is the 50 battalions of
regular and territorial infantry, organised into 17 regiments.
[67] The majority of infantry regiments contains multiple regular and territorial battalions. Modern infantry have diverse capabilities and this is reflected in the varied roles assigned to them. There are four operational roles that infantry battalions can fulfil:
air assault,
armoured infantry,
mechanised infantry, and
light role infantry.
Regiments and battalions exist within every corps of the Army, functioning as administrative or tactical formations. Armoured regiments are equivalent to an infantry battalion. There are 11 armoured regiments within the regular army, of which five are designated as "
Armoured" and five as "
Formation Reconnaissance". The
1st Royal Tank Regiment uniquely forms a component of the
Joint Chemical, Biological, Radiation and Nuclear Regiment. With the exception of the
Household Cavalry, armoured regiments and their Territorial counterparts are grouped under the
Royal Armoured Corps. Arms and support units are also formed into similar collectives organised around specific purposes, such as the
Corps of Royal Engineers,
Army Air Corps and
Royal Army Medical Corps.
[68]
Royal Air Force
Consisting of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft, the
Royal Air Force has a large operational fleet that fulfills various roles. According to a House of Commons written answer made by Armed Forces Minister
Adam Ingram, the RAF had in its inventory an estimated 1,046 aircraft of all types in March 2006.
[69] A personnel strength of 48,700 was recorded in April 2006, though the RAF is undergoing a programme of reduction that will give it a projected trained strength of 41,440 by April 2008.
Frontline aircraft are controlled by
Strike Command, which is organised into two
groups defined by function:
1 Group (Air Combat) and
2 Group (Air Support).
[71] Training aircraft are organised into
22 Group, a component of
Personnel and Training Command.
Deployable formations consist of Expeditionary Air
Wings and
squadrons – the basic unit of the Air Force.
[72][73] Independent
flights are deployed to facilities in Afghanistan, the Falkland Islands, Iraq, and the United States.
[74]
The Royal Air Forces operates multi-role and single-role fighters, reconnaissance and patrol aircraft, tankers, transports, helicopters,
unmanned aerial vehicles, and various types of training aircraft.
[75] Ground units are also maintained by the Royal Air Force, most prominently the
RAF Police and
RAF Regiment. The Royal Air Force Regiment essentially functions as the "ground fighting force" of the RAF.
[76] Roled principally as ground defence for RAF facilities, the regiment contains nine regular squadrons, supported by five squadrons of the
Royal Auxiliary Air Force Regiment. By March 2008, the three remaining "Air Defence" squadrons will have disbanded and their responsibilities transferred to the British Army's
Royal Artillery.
[77]
Civilian Agencies of the MOD
The British Armed Forces are supported by civilian agencies owned by the MOD. Although they are civilian, they play a vital role in supporting Armed Forces operations, and they are under certain circumstances under military discipline.
Naval Auxiliaries
The MOD owns two civilian naval agencies which are not part of the military
Naval Service.
★
Royal Fleet Auxiliary
★
Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service
Police
★ The
MOD Police and Guarding Agency
Personnel
Size
| Service | 1975 | 1985 | 1993 | 1997 | 2005/2006 |
|---|
| 338,400 | 326,200 | 274,800 | 210,800 | 195,900 |
|---|
| 76,200 | 70,400 | 59,400 | 45,100 | 39,400 |
|---|
| 167,100 | 162,400 | 134,600 | 108,800 | 107,700 |
|---|
| 95,000 | 93,400 | 80,900 | 56,900 | 48,700 |
|---|
| N/A | 205,700 | 258,300 | 259,300 | 191,300 |
|---|
| N/A | 25.700 | 22,000 | 24,100 | 22,200 |
|---|
| N/A | 150,200 | 190,200 | 190,100 | 134,200 |
|---|
| N/A | 29,800 | 46,100 | 45,400 | 35,000 |
|---|
| N/A | 88,600 | 76,100 | 62,500 | 42,300 |
|---|
| N/A | 6,300 | 5,600 | 4,600 | 3,600 |
|---|
| N/A | 81,00 | 68,700 | 57,600 | 37,300 |
|---|
| N/A | 1,200 | 1,800 | 1,400 | 1,400 |
|---|
Recruitment
The Armed Forces mainly recruits within the United Kingdom, and normally has an annual recruitment target of around 24,000.
[78] The minimum recruitment age is 16½ years (although personnel may not serve on operations below 18 years); the maximum recruitment age is 37-years. The normal term of engagement is 22 years.
[79] Low unemployment in Britain has resulted in the Army having difficulty in meeting its target, and in the early years of the 21st century there has been a marked increase in the number of recruits from other (predominantly
Commonwealth) countries.
[80][81]
Citizens of
Commonwealth countries, the
Republic of Ireland, and dual-nationals are eligible to join the British Armed Forces.
In 2005, the proportion of foreign nationals in the Armed Forces rose from a 2004 figure of 7.5 to almost 10 percent. While the Army has been the destination for the majority of recruits, large contingents exist in the Navy and Air Force.
[82] Excluding the
Brigade of Gurkhas and the
Royal Irish Regiment, 7,155 personnel were recorded as being of foreign nationality in 2005.
The largest tri-service national groups recorded in 2005 were Fijian (2,040), Jamaican (1,030), South African (710), Zimbabwean (590), Ghanaian (590), and Irish (335).
Smaller contingents were drawn from countries such as Australia (110) and Canada (105), and islands nations with relatively small populations.
A Grenadian, Lance Corporal
Johnson Beharry, was awarded the
Victoria Cross in 2005 for actions in Iraq.
Specific initiatives to develop female and ethnic minority representation in the Armed Forces has yielded percentage increases of 3.4 and 4.5 since 1997.
[83][84][85] In 1997, there were 14,830 (5.7%) women and 2.184 (1.0%) personnel who identified as an ethnic minority.
This had increased to 17,870 (9.1%) and 10,180 (5.5%) in 2006. A higher percentage of personnel have attained higher-rank since 2000. Notably included among these officers are Rear-Admiral
Amjad Hussain, Air Commodore
David Case, Commodore
Carolyn Stait, and Squadron Leader
Nicky Smith.
[86][87] Women have been fully integrated into the British Armed Forces since the early 1990s; however, they remain excluded from primarily combat units in the Army, Royal Marines,
Royal Air Force Regiment, and the submarine service.
[88]
Since 2000, sexual orientation has not been a factor considered in recruitment and homosexuals can serve openly in the armed forces, unlike in the
United States armed forces for example, the army actively recruits at Gay Pride parades.
Current operations
Main articles: Deployments of the British military
There were over 30,000 members of the British Armed Forces deployed abroad in January 2007, serving in various capacities.
[89][90] Peackeeping, humanitarian aid, and disaster relief tasks have increased in recent years, many under the auspices of the United Nations and NATO.
[91] The Armed Forces most recently contributed to the international humanitarian and reconstruction efforts that occurred in the aftermath of the
2004 tsunami and
2005 earthquake in
Pakistan.
[92][93]
Within the United Kingdom, there were approximately 140,000 personnel stationed in England, 13,200 in Scotland, 7,000 in Northern Ireland, and 6,200 in Wales.
[94] The
conflict in Northern Ireland has required the Armed Forces to provide "
Military Aid to the Civil Power" since 1969, with a presence that peaked at over 20,000 regular personnel in 1972.
[95] Sectarian and paramilitary violence has subsided since the
Good Friday Agreement was signed in 1998.
[96] The IRA declared an end to its campaign in 2005. Operational support for the
Police Service of Northern Ireland, known as
Operation Banner, officially ended on
1 August 2007 and result in the reduction of the miliary presence to the size of a peacetime garrison.
[97]
Personnel are based in a number of
overseas territories, though internal security for the majority is provided solely by small police forces. Garrisons and facilities exist in Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, and the Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus.
These deployments accounted for over 5,000 personnel in 2006.
Locally-raised units are maintained in
Bermuda (
The Bermuda Regiment), the Falkland Islands (
Falkland Islands Defence Force), and Gibraltar (
Royal Gibraltar Regiment). Though their primary mission is "home defence", individuals have volunteered for operational duties. The Royal Gibraltar Regiment has recently mobilised section-sized units for attachment to regiments deployed to Iraq.
[98][99]
Recent Defence Reviews
★
Options for Change (1993)
★
Strategic Defence Review (1998)
★
Delivering Security in a Changing World [2] (2003)
See also
★
European Security and Defence Policy
★
Military of Scotland
★
Military of the Falkland Islands
Notes
1. Armed Forces Act 1976, Arrangement of Sections, raf.mod.uk
2. Strength of UK Regular Forces by Service and whether trained or untrained at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk
3. The Mission of the Armed Forces, armedforces.co.uk
4. Permanent Joint Operating Bases, northwood.mod.uk
5. House of Commons Hansard, publications.parliament.uk
6.
Chandler & Beckett (2003), p343
7. Colman (2005), ''A 'Special Relationship'?: Harold Wilson, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Anglo-American Relations' at the at the Summit’, 1964-68'', p77
8. Focus on Europe, raf.mod.uk
9. Johnman & Gorst (1997), ''The Suez Crisis'', p166
10. Lider (1985), ''British Military Thought After World War II'', p525
11. Lee (1996), ''Aspects of British Political History 1914-1995'', 273
12. Pierre (1972), ''Nuclear Politics: the British experience with an independent strategic force: 1939-1970'', p100
13. Hack (2000), ''Defence and Decolonisation in South-East Asia: Britain, Malaya, Singapore, 1941-1968'', p285
14. Chandler & Beckett (2003), p345
15. Vanguard to Trident 1945-2000, royal-navy.mod.uk
16. Kennedy (2004), ''British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000: Influence and Actions'', p193
17. Focus on Europe, raf.mod.uk, p15-16
18. Kennedy (2004), ''British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000: Influence and Actions'', p193
19. 1998 Publication, dasa.mod.uk
20. Chandler & Beckett (2003), p421
21.
Kennedy (2004), ''British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000: Influence and Actions'', p246
22. Harding (2005), ''The Royal Navy 1930-2000: innovation and defence'', p220
23. Chandler & Beckett (2003), pp350-351
24. Hollowell (2003), ''Britain Since 1945, p16
25. Chandler & Beckett (2003), p358
26. Strachan (2006), ''Big Wars And Small Wars: The British Army And the Lessons of War in the Twentieth Centur'', p158
27. Frantzen (2005), ''Nato And Peace Support Operations, 1991-1999: Policies And Doctrines'', p104
28. Frantzen (2005), ''NATO and Peace Support Operations, 1991-1999: policies and doctrines'', p95
29. Dorman (2005), Overstretch: Modern Army's weakness, news.bbc.co.uk
30. Chandler & Beckett (2003), p434
31. BBC (2007), Military 'faces retention crisis', news.bbc.co.uk
32. Chandler & Beckett (2003), P418
33. Kennedy, ''British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000: Influence and Actions'', p261
34.
Hansard (1998), House of Commons, publications.parliament.uk
35. Chandler & Beckett (2003), p418
36. Permanent Joint Headquarters, armedforces.co.u
37. BBC (2004), The armed forces of the future, news.bbc.co.uk
38. Delivering Security in a Changing World Future Capabilities, mod.uk
39. BBC News (2004), Hoon confirms super-regiment plan, news.bbc.co.uk
40. Future Army Structure, armedforces.co.uk
41. Defence Spending www.mod.org
42. Tim Radford Military dominates UK science, says report The Guardian 20-1-2005
43. UK armed forces 'below strength' bbc.co.uk 3-10-2006
44. Queen and Armed Forces, royal.gov.uk
45. United Kingdom (05/06), state.gov
46. Civilian personnel by budgetary area and grade equivalence, at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk
47. Defence Organisation, mod.uk
48. Defence Council and Chief of the Defence Staff, armedforces.co.uk
49. Hansard (1998), House of Commons Written Answers, publications.parliament.uk
50. UKDS 2005 - Glossary & Abbreviations: N
51. Personnel Support Brief - Summer 2006, rncom.mod.uk
52.
Fleet Today, royal-navy.mod.uk
53.
RFA Fleet Today, royal-navy.mod.uk
54. Number of vessels in the Royal Navy and Royal Fleet Auxiliary, and squadrons in the Fleet Air Arm at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk
55. Hampshire (1975), ''The Royal Navy Since 1945: its transition to the nuclear age'', p248
56. Fleet Command and Organisation, armedforces.co.uk
57. https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/static/content/209.html
58. BBC News (2002), UK's mountain warfare elite, news.bbc.co.uk
59. The Commando Role for 1 RIFLER, army.mod.uk
60. Commando Logistic Regiment, royalnavy.mod.uk
61. Strength of the Reserve Forces at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk
62. Future Army Structure, armedforces.co.uk
63. Defence Organisation, mod.uk
64. Divisions and Brigades, army.mod.uk
65. Number of Regiments, Infantry battalions & Major Headquarters, in the Regular & Territorial Army at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk
66. HQ Land Command, armedforces.co.uk/
67. The Mercian Regiment is to be formed in August 2007, to become the final regiment created a result of the infantry amalgamations under FAS
68. Arms and Services, army.mod.uk
69. Hansard House of Commons, publications.parliament.uk
70. House of Commons Hansard, publications.parliament.uk
71. RAF - Structure, raf.mod.uk
72. Transforming the Royal Air Force,raf.mod.uk
73. Royal Air Force Squadrons, raf.mod.uk
74. Aircraft Order of Battle, scramble.nl
75. Royal Air Force - Equipment, .raf.mod.uk
76. The Royal Air Force Regiment, raf.mod.uk
77. RAF Regiment, armedforces.co.uk
78. Hansard House of Commons, publications.parliament.uk
79. BBC News (2007), Recruitment Age for Army Raised, news.bbc.co.u
80. Evans (2005), How British Army is fast becoming foreign legion, timesonline.co.uk
81. Wilson (2006), One in 10 soldiers is recruited overseas, telegraph.co.uk
82. Hansard House of Commons, publications.parliament.uk/
83. Hansard House of Commons, publications.parliament.uk
84. Strength of UK Regular Forces by sex and Service at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk
85. Strength of UK Regular Forces by ethnic origin and rank at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk
86. Naval base appoints female chief, news.bbc.co.uk
87. Honour for high-flying woman, news.bbc.co.uk
88. Women in the Armed Forces, .mod.uk
89. House of Commons Hansard, publications.parliament.uk
90. Where are British troops and why?, news.bbc.co.uk
91. Ministry of Defence Policy Paper Paper No.2 - Multinational Defence Co-operation, mod.uk
92. Operation Garron, operations.mod.uk
93. Pakistan Earthquake Relief Operations: Chronology of Events, operations.mod.uk
94. Numbers of UK armed forces committed to Northern Ireland, dasa.mod.uk
95. Jackson, ''Ireland, 1798-1998: Politics and War'', p404
96. BBC News, Good Friday Agreement, news.bbc.co.uk
97. BBC News (2006), Troop withdrawal plan published, news.bbc.co.uk
98. The Royal Gibraltar Regiment, 1rg.gi
99. More soldiers from Royal Gibraltar Regiment in overseas duties in regiment's history, panorama.gi
References
★ Chandler, David (2003), ''The Oxford History of the British Army'', Oxford Paperbacks ISBN 0-19-280311-5
★
Manpower update, BBC News.
★
Manpower, etc
External links
★
British Ministry of Defence
★
Military Knowledge Online - an MoD website
★
Defence expenditure 2005-2007 (PDF)
★
UK Military News & Information Portal
★
kamouflage.net > global search: Europe > United Kingdom > index
★
The Defence Suppliers Directory
★
Military Suppliers Directory
★
British Armed Forces unofficial site
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