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An infant breastfeeding
International Breastfeeding Symbol (Matt Daigle, Mothering magazine contest winner 2006)
'Breastfeeding' is the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a woman's breasts. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and milk.
Experimental evidence suggests that, with few exceptions, human breast milk is the best source of nourishment for human infants.[1] Experts still disagree about how long breastfeeding should continue to gain the most benefit, and how much extra risk is involved in using breast milk substitutes.[2][3][4]
An infant may be breastfed by its own mother or by another lactating female, a wet nurse. Breast milk may be (such as with a breast pump) and fed to a baby through a bottle, and donor human milk may also be used. Breast milk substitutes are available for mothers or families who cannot or prefer not to breastfeed their children. While there are conflicting studies about the relative value of breast milk substitutes, the use of commercial infant formulas is acknowledged to be inferior to breastfeeding for both full term and premature infants.[5] In many countries, artificial feeding is associated with a greater mortality from diarrhoea in infants[6] but where there is clean water, many consider artificial feeding to be acceptable.3
Governmental strategies and international initiatives promote breastfeeding as the best method of feeding infants in their first year and beyond. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) also promote breastfeeding.[7][8]
__TOC__
Lactation
The production, secretion and ejection of milk is called lactation. It is one of the defining features of being a mammal.
Breast milk
Main articles: Breast milk
The exact properties of breast milk are not entirely understood, but the nutrient content of mature milk is relatively stable. Its ingredients come from the mother's food supply and the nutrients in her bloodstream at the time of feeding. If that is not enough, nutrients come from the mother's bodily stores. Some studies estimate that a woman who breastfeeds her infant exclusively uses 500–600 more calories a day just producing milk for her offspring.[9] The exact composition of breast milk varies from day to day, and even hour to hour, depending on both the manner in which the baby nurses and the mother's food consumption and environment, so the ratio of water to fat fluctuates.
Foremilk, the milk released at the beginning of a feed, is watery, low in fat and high in carbohydrates; hindmilk, which is increasingly released as the feed progresses is creamier. There is no sharp distinction between foremilk and hindmilk, the change is very gradual. Research from Peter Hartmann's group tells us that fat content of the milk is primarily determined by the emptiness of the breast—the less milk in the breast, the higher the fat content. The breast can never be truly "emptied" since milk production is continuous.
Benefits
Breastfeeding benefits both mother and child physically and psychologically. Nutrients and antibodies are passed to the baby while hormones are released into the mother's body. Breastfeeding The bond between baby and mother can also be strengthened during breastfeeding. Benefits of Breastfeeding
Benefits for the infant
The health benefits of breastfeeding are well documented. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics,
::—American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement8
Breastfed babies have a lower risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and other diseases. Suckling at the breast encourages the proper development of the infant's teeth and speech organs. Suckling also helps prevent obstructive sleep apnea. Also, breast milk is at the right temperature and is immediately available from the breast.
Breastfeeding is associated with lower risk of the following diseases:
#Allergies[10]
#Asthma[11][12]
#Autoimmune thyroid diseases Breast and soy-formula feedings in early infancy and the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in children, Fort P, Moses N, Fasano M, Goldberg T, Lifshitz F, , , J Am Coll Nutr, 1990
#Bacterial meningitis8
#Breast cancer
#Celiac disease[13]
#Crohn's disease[14]
#Diabetes8
#Diarrhea8
#Eczema[15]
#Gastroenteritis[16]
#Hodgkin's lymphoma8
#Necrotizing enterocolitis8
#Multiple sclerosis
#Obesity8
#Otitis media (ear infection)8
#Respiratory infection and wheezing8
#Rheumatoid arthritis[17]
#Urinary tract infection8
Breast milk has several anti-infective factors. These include the anti-malarial factor ''para''-amino benzoic acid (PABA),[18] the anti-amoebic factor BSSL,[19], lactoferrin, the second most common protein in human milk, that binds to iron and inhibits the growth of intestinal bacteria like ''E. coli'' and ''Salmonella'', [20][21] and IgA which protects breastfeeding infants from microbial infection.[22]
Breast milk contains the right amount of the amino acids cystine, methionine and taurine that are essential for neuronal (brain and nerve) development.[23] A New Zealand study tracking over 1000 children for 8 to 18 years found small but measurable increases in cognitive ability and education achievement. This remained even after adjusting for other factors (such as maternal education level).[24]
One study suggests that in resource-poor settings where safe infant formula is unavailable, exclusive breastfeeding (as compared with "mixed" feeding where breastfeeding is combined with formula, solids or animal milk) may reduce the risk of HIV transmission from mother to child in infants less than 6 months old.[25]
Unlike human milk, the predominant protein in cow's milk is beta-lactoglobulin, an important factor in cow milk allergies.[26]
Benefits for the mother
Breastfeeding benefits the mother. It releases hormones such as oxytocin and prolactin that have been found to relax the mother and make her feel more nurturing toward her baby. Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives, Dettwyler K, , , Aldine Transaction, 1995, ISBN 978-0-202-01192-9 Breastfeeding within a short time after giving birth increases levels of systemic oxytocin. This makes the uterus contract more quickly and decreases maternal bleeding. Influence of breastfeeding and nipple stimulation on postpartum uterine activity, Chua S, Arulkumaran S, Lim I, Selamat N, Ratnam S, , , Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 1994
As the fat accumulated during pregnancy is used in milk production, prolonged breastfeeding can help mothers to return to their previous weight. Maternal weight-loss patterns during prolonged lactation, Dewey K, Heinig M, Nommsen L, , , Am J Clin Nutr, 1993 The effect of weight loss in overweight, lactating women on the growth of their infants, Lovelady C, Garner K, Moreno K, Williams J, , , N Engl J Med, 2000 Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding can cause lactational amenorrhea, a delay in the return of menstruation and therefore fertility. Sometimes this is deliberately used as a birth control method, which has a 98% success rate[27] if certain criteria are met:
★ Breastfeeding must be the infant’s only (or almost only) source of nutrition. Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing,[28] and feeding solids all reduce the effectiveness of LAM.
★ The infant must breastfeed at least every four hours during the day and at least every six hours at night.
★ The infant must be less than six months old.
★ The woman must not have had a period after 56 days post-partum (when determining fertility, bleeding prior to 56 days post-partum can be ignored).
Breastfeeding is possible throughout pregnancy, but generally milk production will be reduced at some point during the pregnancy.[29]
Breastfeeding mothers have less risk of many diseases including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, decreased insulin requirements in diabetic mothers, Changes in insulin therapy during pregnancy, Rayburn W, Piehl E, Lewis E, Schork A, Sereika S, Zabrensky K, , , Am J Perinatol, 1985 stabilizing maternal endometriosis, less risk of post-partum hemorrhage, less risk of endometrial cancer, Prolonged lactation and endometrial cancer. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives, Rosenblatt K, Thomas D, , , Int J Epidemiol, 1995 Breast feeding practices in relation to endometrial cancer risk, USA, Newcomb P, Trentham-Dietz A, , , Cancer Causes Control, 2000 less risk of osteoporosis and beneficial effects on insulin levels of mothers with polycystic ovary syndrome. Resumption of ovarian function during lactational amenorrhoea in breastfeeding women with polycystic ovarian syndrome: endocrine aspects, Sir-Petermann T, Devoto L, Maliqueo M, Peirano P, Recabarren S, Wildt L, , , Hum Reprod, 2001
Mothers who breastfeed longer than eight months have better bone re-mineralisation.[30]
On the other hand, some breastfeeding women have pain from thrush or staph infections of the nipple.[31]
From a financial standpoint, breastfeeding is roughly half the cost of infant formula.5
Bonding
The hormones released during breastfeeding strengthen the mother's feelings towards the child. Strengthening the maternal bond is very important as up to 80% of mothers suffer from some form of postnatal depression, though most cases are very mild. The woman's partner and other caregivers can support her in a variety of ways and this support is an important factor in successful breastfeeding. Teaching partners how to manage common difficulties is associated with higher breastfeeding rates.[32]
Breastfeeding can have an impact on the personal relationship between a mother's partner and the child. While some partners may feel left out when the mother is feeding the baby, others see it as an opportunity for strengthening family bonds. Looking after a new baby and breastfeeding take time. This can add pressure to the partner and the family, because the partner has to care for the mother as well as performing tasks she would otherwise do. However, as partners are often very willing to give this support, this pressure can help to strengthen family bonds.[33]
If the mother is away, an alternative caregiver may be able to use expressed breast milk (EBM) to feed the baby. The various breast pumps available for sale and rent make it possible for working mothers to breastfeed their babies for as long as they want. However, the mother must produce and store enough milk to feed the child for the time she is away and this may not always be practical. Also, the other caregiver must be comfortable in handling breast milk. These two factors may prompt the mother - perhaps against her wishes - to switch to artificial feeding, either temporarily or permanently.
Recommendations and research
The World Health Organization advises:[34]
Breastfeeding complications
Main articles: Breastfeeding complications
Despite being a natural human activity, there are cases where breastfeeding can be difficult or contraindicated.
While breastfeeding difficulties are not uncommon, putting the baby to the breast as soon as possible after birth helps to reduce them greatly. The AAP breastfeeding policy says: ''Delay weighing, measuring, bathing, needle-sticks, and eye prophylaxis until after the first feeding is completed.''8 Many breastfeeding difficulties can be resolved with proper hospital procedures, properly trained nurses and hospital staff, and lactation consultants.[35]
Infant weight gain
Breastfed infants generally gain weight according to the following guidelines:
:0–4 months: 170 grams per week†
:4–6 months: 113–142 grams per week
:6–12 months: 57–113 grams per week
:† It is acceptable for some babies to gain 113–142 grams (4–5 ounces) per week. This average is taken from the lowest weight, not the birth weight.
The average breastfed baby doubles birth weight in 5–6 months. By one year, the typical breastfed baby will weigh about 2½ times birth weight. At one year, breastfed babies tend to be leaner than bottle fed babies.[36] By two years, differences in weight gain and growth between breastfed and formula-fed babies are no longer evident. The Breastfeeding Answer Book, , Nancy, Mohrbacher, La Leche League International, 2003, ISBN 0-912500-92-1
Methods and considerations
There are many books and videos for new mothers to advise them about breastfeeding. Advice and support can also be obtained from a lactation consultant in hospitals or private practice, or from volunteer organizations of breastfeeding mothers such as La Leche League.
Early breastfeeding
When mothers initiate breast-feeding within one-half hour of birth, the baby's suckling reflex is strongest, and the baby is more alert [37].
Early breast-feeding is associated with fewer nighttime feeding problems [38]
Time and place for breastfeeding
Breastfeeding at least once every two to three hours helps to keep up the milk supply. For most women, a target of eight breastfeeding or pumping sessions every 24 hours keeps their milk supply high. It is common for newborn babies to feed more often than this: 10 to 12 breastfeeding sessions every 24 hours is common, and some may even feed 18 times a day. Infant feeding – Breast or bottle and how to breast feed Feeding a baby 'on demand' (sometimes referred to as "on cue"), which may mean breastfeeding many times more than the recommended minimum, feeding when the baby shows early signs of hunger, is the best way to maintain milk production and ensure the baby's needs for milk and comfort are being satisfied. However, it may be important to recognize whether a baby is truly hungry, as breastfeeding too frequently may mean the child receives a disproportunately high amount of foremilk, and not enough hindmilk, potentially creating problems. .
Babies usually show they are hungry by (newborns), their s, or . Crying is a late indicator of hunger. When babies' s are d, the ''rooting instinct'' makes them move their face towards the stroking and open their mouth.
Breastfeeding can make mothers thirsty, especially at first, when both mother and baby are inexperienced and when feeding sessions can last for up to an hour or more (there is no time limit for breastfeeding). Having water readily available helps mothers maintain proper hydration.
Place
Rooming-in bassinet
In the hospitals, is used for breastfeeding.
In some places, including hypermarkets, there are breastfeeding rooms.
Latching on, feeding and positioning
When the baby's cheek is stroked with the nipple, the baby will open its mouth and turn towards it. So that the baby will well, the nipple should be pushed into its mouth so that the baby has a mouthful of nipple and areola. The nipple should be at the back of the baby's throat, with the baby's tongue lying flat in its mouth. Inverted or flat nipples can be massaged so that the baby will have more to latch onto.
Many women wear nursing brassieres for easier access to the breast, but these are not always necessary and certainly not required. In the very early days a nursing bra can make breastfeeding complicated and uncomfortable. Wearing a bra at any time after birth will not affect how the breast changes with pregnancy and breastfeeding. Many women find that the size of their breasts change dramatically and so fitting a bra is better done after childbirth rather than before. An ill-fitting bra, whether designed for nursing or otherwise, can cause plugged ducts or mastitis.
Pain in the nipple or breast is linked to incorrect breastfeeding techniques. Failure to latch on is one of the main reasons for ineffective feeding and can lead to infant health concerns. A 2006 study found that inadequate parental education, incorrect breastfeeding techniques, or both were associated with higher rates of preventable hospital admissions in newborns. Preventable newborn readmissions since passage of the Newborns' and Mothers' Health Protection Act, Paul I, Lehman E, Hollenbeak C, Maisels M, , , Pediatrics, 2006
The baby may from the nipple after a few minutes or after a much longer period of time. Normal feeds at the breast can a few sucks (newborns), from 10 to 20 minutes or even longer (on demand). Sometimes, after the finishing of a breast, the mother may offer the other breast.
The length of feeds varies a lot. Regardless of the time taken, the breastfeeding mother should be comfortable.
★ Upright: The sitting position with the back straight and leaning back comfortably.
★ Mobile: The mother carries her nursling in a sling or other baby carrier while breastfeeding. Doing so permits the mother to incorporate breastfeeding into the varied work of daily life
★ Lying down: Good for night feeds or for those who have had a caesarean section
★
★ On her back: Mother is usually sitting slightly upright; particularly useful for tandem breastfeeding (nursing more than one child)
★
★ On her side: The mother and baby lie on their sides
★ Hands and knees: The mother is on all fours with the baby underneath her (not usually recommended)
While most women breastfeed their child in the position, there are many ways to hold the feeding baby. It depends on the mother and child's comfort and the feeding preference of the baby. Some babies prefer one breast to the other, but the mother should offer both breasts at every nursing with her newborn.
★ Cradling positions:
★
★ Cradle hold: The baby is held with its head in the woman's elbow horizontally across the abdomen, "tummy to tummy", with the woman in an upright and supported position image
★
★ Cross-cradle hold: As above but the baby is held with its head in the woman's hand
★ Football hold: The woman is upright and the baby is held securely under the mother's arm with the head cradled in her hands. This position is especially useful for feeding twins simultaneously image
★ Feeding up hill: The baby lies stomach to stomach with the mother who is lying on her back; this is helpful for babies finding it difficult to feed
★ Lying down:
★
★ On its side: The mother and baby lie on their sides
★
★ On its back: The baby is lying on its back (cushioned by something soft) with the mother on her hands and knees above the child (not usually recommended)
When tandem breastfeeding, the mother is unable to move the baby from one breast to another and comfort can be more of an issue. As tandem breastfeeding brings extra strain to the arms, especially as the babies grow, many mothers of twins recommend the use of more supporting pillows. Favoured positions include:
★ Double cradle hold
★ Double clutch hold image
★ One clutched baby and one cradled baby
★ Lying down
Exclusive breastfeeding
Exclusive breastfeeding is when an infant receives no other food or drink, or even water, besides breast milk (whether expressed or through breastfeeding).7
International guidelines recommend that all infants be breastfed exclusively for the first six months of life. While each country has its own policy regarding infant feeding, it is generally accepted that newborns should be exclusively breastfed for around 6 months, and that breastfeeding should continue with the addition of appropriate foods, for two years or more. The practice of exclusive breastfeeding has dramatically reduced infant mortality in developing countries due to a reduction in diarrhea and infectious diseases.
Exclusively breastfed infants feed, anywhere from 6 to 14 times a day. Their requirements vary greatly. Newborns consume from 30 to 90 ml (1 to 3 US fluid ounces). After the age of four weeks, babies consume about 120ml (4 US fluid ounces) per feed. Each baby is different, and as it grows the amount will increase. It is important to recognise the baby's hunger signs and it is advised that the baby should dictate the number, frequency, and length of each feed, based on the assumption that it knows how much milk it needs. The supply of milk in the breast is determined by the frequency and length of these feeds or the amount of milk expressed. The birth weight of the baby may affect its feeding habits, and mothers may be influenced by what they perceive its requirements to be. For example, a baby born small for gestational age may lead a mother to believe that her child needs to feed more than if it larger; they should, however, go by the demands of the baby rather than what they feel is necessary.
It can be hard to accurately measure the amount of food a breastfed baby consumes, but babies normally feed to meet their own requirements.[39] Babies that fail to eat enough may exhibit symptoms of failure to thrive. If necessary, it is possible to estimate output from wet and soiled nappies (diapers): 8 wet cloth or 5–6 wet disposable, and 2–5 soiled per 24 hours suggests an acceptable amount of input for newborns older than 5–6 days old. After 2–3 months, stool frequency is a less accurate measure of adequate input as some normal infants may go up to 10 days between stools. Babies can also be weighed before and after feeds.
Expressing breast milk
Manual breast pump
When direct breastfeeding is not possible a baby can still be fed breast milk. By ''expressing'' (artificially removing and storing) her milk, a mother can enable her child to be fed with her milk while she is away. With manual massage or the use of a breast pump a woman can express her milk and keep it in freezer storage bags, a supplemental nursing system, or a bottle ready for use. This container may be kept at room temperature for up to seven hours, refrigerated for up to eight days or frozen for up to four months. Research suggests that antioxidant activity in expressed breast milk decreases over time but it still remains in higher levels than in infant formula. Effect of storage on breast milk antioxidant activity, Hanna N, , , Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed,
Expressing breast milk can keep up a mother's milk supply when she and her child are apart for long. If a sick baby is unable to feed, expressed milk can be fed through a nasogastric tube.
Expressed milk can also be used when a mother is having trouble breastfeeding, such as when a newborn causes grazing and bruising. When an older baby grows teeth and bites the nipple, the mother's reaction - a jump and a cry of pain - is usually enough to discourage the child from biting again.
It is generally advised to delay using a bottle in feeding expressed breast milk until the baby is about 4-6 weeks old and is good at sucking directly from the breast.[40] This is to avoid ''nipple confusion'' and ''nursing strike'', when the baby prefers to suck from bottle, which takes less effort, and so loses its desire to suck from the breast. If feeding expressed breast milk (EBM) must be done before 4-6 weeks of age, it is recommended that it be given by other means such as feeding spoons or feeding cups. Also, EBM should be given by someone other than the breastfeeding mother (or wet nurse), so that the baby can learn to associate direct feeding with the mother (or wet nurse) and associate bottle with other people.
Some women donate their expressed breast milk (EBM) to others, either directly or through a milk bank. Though some dislike the idea of feeding their own child with another woman's milk, others appreciate being able to give their baby the benefits of breast milk. Feeding expressed breast milk—either from donors or the baby's own mother—is the feeding method of choice for premature babies.[41]
Mixed feeding
Expressed breast milk (EBM) or infant formula can be fed to an infant by bottle
Predominant or mixed breastfeeding means feeding breast milk along with infant formula, baby food and even water, depending on the age of the child. Babies feed differently with artificial teats than from a breast. When feeding from the breast, the tongue massages the milk out rather than sucking, and the nipple does not go as far into the mouth; when feeding from a bottle, an infant will suck harder and the milk may come in more rapidly. Therefore, mixing breastfeeding and bottle-feeding (or using a pacifier) before the baby is used to feeding from its mother can induce the infant to prefer the bottle to the breast. Orthodontic teats, which are generally slightly longer, are closer to the nipple. Some mothers supplement feed with a small syringe or flexible cup to reduce the risk of artificial nipple preference.
Tandem breastfeeding
Feeding two infants simultaneously is called ''tandem breastfeeding'' (Sidenote: Feeding a child while being pregnant with another can also be considered a tandem breastfeeding condition for the nursing mother, as she also provides the nutrition for two[42]). The most common need for tandem breastfeeding is after the birth of twins where both babies are fed at the same time. The appetite and feeding habits of each baby may not be the same, which could mean feeding each according to their own individual needs, while also trying to get them to breastfeed together to minimize time spent breastfeeding.
In cases of multiple births with three or more children, it can be extremely difficult for the mother to organise feeding around the appetites of all the babies. While breasts can produce large quantities of milk, according to the demand placed upon them,[43] it is common for women to use alternatives, although many mothers have been able to breastfeed their infants successfully without them.
Tandem breastfeeding may also occur when a woman has a baby while breastfeeding an older child. During the late stages of pregnancy the milk will change to colostrum, and some older nurslings will continue to feed even with this change, while others may wean due to the change in taste or drop in supply.
Extended breastfeeding
Although some may find it controversial, some women breastfeed their children for as many as 3 to (rarely) 7 years from birth. Breastfeeding past one year is called ''extended breastfeeding''. (Often called "sustained breastfeeding" by supporters and those outside the U.S. [44]) Supporters of extended breastfeeding believe that all the benefits of human milk, nutritional, immunological and emotional, continue for as long as a child nurses. Often the older child will nurse infrequently or sporadically as a way of bonding with the mother. Detractors may believe that prolonging breastfeeding for several years can result in the child developing emotional or psycho-sexual problems,[45] however there is no solid evidence to support these beliefs.
Example
H.L. Hunt, the Texas oil man, was nursed by his mother until he was seven years old (1896). Hunt was something of a prodigy and his mother rewarded him by allowing him to continue nursing at her breast long past the customary weaning age. He finally stopped this practice when his father found him suckling his mother while she was standing in their kitchen kneading dough. As an adult, H.L. Hunt wrote about this without embarrassment. [46]
Shared breastfeeding
It is sometimes common for more than one woman to feed a child, such as in developing nations within Africa. This shared breastfeeding has been highlighted as a source of HIV infection in infants.[47]. A woman who is engaged to breastfeed another's baby is known as a wet nurse. Islam has codified the relationship between this woman and the infants she nurses, and also between the infants when they grow up, so that milk siblings are considered as blood siblings and cannot marry.
Weaning
Weaning is the process of gradually introducing the infant to what will be its adult diet and reducing the supply of breast milk. The infant is considered to be fully weaned once it no longer receives any breast milk and begins to rely on solid foods for all its nutrition. Most mammals cease the production of the enzyme lactase at the end of weaning, becoming lactose intolerant. Many humans have a mutation that allows the production of lactase throughout life and can drink milk well beyond the age of weaning.[48] This milk comes from dairy animals, usually cows or goats.
In the past, bromocriptine was sometimes used to reduce the engorgement experienced by many women during weaning. However, it was discovered that when used for this purpose, this medication posed serious health risks to women, such as stroke, and the U.S. FDA withdrew this indication for the drug.[49]
History of breastfeeding
Main articles: History of breastfeeding
Prior to the last few hundred years or so, alternatives to breastfeeding were rare. Attempts were made in 15th century Europe to introduce cow or goat's milk, but were not very positive. The next resurgence came in the 18th century when flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes, but this also did not have a favorable outcome. True commercial infant formulas did not appear on the market until the mid-1800s, and it was post-WWII that their use became widespread. As the risks of increased illness, death and other negative consequences with the use of breast milk alternatives became well-established in medical literature, breastfeeding rates have increased in recent times in countries that have enacted measures to protect the rights of infants and mothers to breastfeed.
See also
★ Attachment parenting
★ Baby transport
★ Baby-friendly hospital
★ Baby-led weaning
★ Continuum concept
★ Doula
★ Erotic lactation
★ Human milk banking in North America
★ Kathy Dettwyler
★ List of child related articles
★ Milk line
★ Milkmaid
★ Nursing chair
★ Parenting
★ Sheila Kitzinger
★ Sleep
★ Topfree equality
References
Numbered references
1. Nutrient composition of human milk, Picciano M, , , Pediatr Clin North Am, 2001
2. Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding, Kramer M, Kakuma R, , , Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2002
3. Human milk substitutes. An American perspective, Baker R, , , Minerva Pediatr, 2003
4. Infant formulas. Recent developments and new issues, Agostoni C, Haschke F, , , Minerva Pediatr, 2003
5. The cost of not breastfeeding: a commentary, Riordan JM, , , J Hum Lact, 1997
6. Breastfeeding promotion and priority setting in health Horton S
7. Exclusive Breastfeeding
8. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk, Gartner LM, ''et al'', , , Pediatrics, 2005
9. Breastfeeding Guidelines
10. Breast feeding and allergic diseases in infants-a prospective birth cohort study, Kull I, Wickman M, Lilja G, Nordvall S, Pershagen G, , , Arch Dis Child, 2002
11. [W H Oddy, senior research officer http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/319/7213/815 Asthma BMJ 1999]
12. [Oddy 2004 Journal of Asthma 2004 Sept. http://http://jhl.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/19/3/250 A review of the effects of breastfeeding on respiratory infections, atopy, and childhood asthma]
13. Effect of breast feeding on risk of coeliac disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies, Akobeng A, Ramanan A, Buchan I, Heller R, , , Arch Dis Child, 2006
14. Breast-feeding and maternal smoking in the etiology of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis in childhood, Rigas A, Rigas B, Glassman M, Yen Y, Lan S, Petridou E, Hsieh C, Trichopoulos D, , , Ann Epidemiol, 1993
15. Breastfeeding and eczema, Pratt H, , , Early Hum Dev, 1984
16. "Gastroenteritis". ''Merck Manuals Online Medical Library''. 1 February 2003. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
17. Perinatal characteristics and risk of rheumatoid arthritis, Jacobsson L, Jacobsson M, Askling J, Knowler W, , , BMJ, 2003
18. A longitudinal study of seroreactivities to Plasmodium falciparum antigens in Nigerian infants during their first year of life, Achidi E, Perlmann H, Salimonu L, Perlmann P, Walker O, Asuzu M, , , Acta Trop, 1995
19. Bile-salt-stimulated lipase and mucins from milk of 'secretor' mothers inhibit the binding of Norwalk virus capsids to their carbohydrate ligands, Ruvoën-Clouet N, Mas E, Marionneau S, Guillon P, Lombardo D, Le Pendu J, , , Biochem J, 2006
20. Antiinflammatory activities of lactoferrin, Conneely O, , , J Am Coll Nutr, 2001
21. Human milk glycoproteins inhibit the adherence of Salmonella typhimurium to HeLa cells, Bessler H, de Oliveira I, Giugliano L, , , Microbiol Immunol, 2006
22. Human milk IgA concentrations during the first year of lactation, Weaver L, Arthur H, Bunn J, Thomas J, , , Arch Dis Child, 1998
23. Proteins and non-protein nitrogens in human milk, Atkinson, S, , , CRC Press, ,
24. Breastfeeding and later cognitive and academic outcomes, Horwood L, Fergusson D, , , Pediatrics, 1998
25.
26. Myths and facts about breastfeeding: does it prevent later atopic disease?, Vandenplas Y, , , Acta Paediatr, 1997
27. Comparison of Effectiveness , which cites:
: Contraceptive Technology, , RA, Hatcher, Ardent Media, 2000, ISBN 0-9664902-6-6
28. ReproLine ''The Reading Room''. Lactational Amenorrhea Method, which cites:
: Acute prolactin and oxytocin responses and milk yield to infant suckling and artificial methods of expression in lactating women., Zinaman M, Hughes V, Queenan J, Labbok M, Albertson B, , , Pediatrics, 1992
29. Nursing Through Pregnancy, Feldman S, , , New Beginnings,
30.
Influence of breastfeeding and other reproductive factors on bone mass later in life, Melton III L, , , Osteoporosis International,
31. Candida albicans: is it associated with nipple pain in lactating women?, Amir L, , , Gynecol Obstet Invest,
32. A controlled trial of the father's role in breastfeeding promotion, , Alfredo, Piscane, Pediatrics,
33. Applied Anthropology: An Introduction (3rd Edition), , John, van Willigen, Bergin & Garvey Paperback / Greenwood Press, , ISBN 0897898338
34. World Health Organization, "Global strategy for infant and young child feeding," section titled "EXERCISING OTHER FEEDING OPTIONS" 24 November 2001
35. Dr. Jack Newman's guide to breastfeeding, Newman J, , , HarperCollins Publishers, ,
36. Weight gain (Growth patterns)
37. Widstrom AM, Wahlberg V, Matthiesen AS, Eneroth P, Uvnas-Moberg K, Werner S, et al. Short-term effects of early suckling and touch of the nipple on maternal behavior. Early Hum Dev 1990; 21:153-63.
38. Renfrew MJ, Lang S. Early versus delayed initiation of breastfeeding. In: The Cochrane Library [on CD-ROM]. Oxford: Update Software;1998.
39.
40. What to Expect the First Year, Arlene Eisenberg, , , Workman Publishing Company, , ISBN 0894805770
41. State of the science: use of human milk and breast-feeding for vulnerable infants, Spatz D, , , J Perinat Neonatal Nurs, 2006
42. Adventures in Tandem Nursing: Breastfeeding During Pregnancy and Beyond, Flower H, , , La Leche League International, 2003,
43. Breastfeeding multiples: Breastfeeding triplets, Grunberg R, , , New Beginnings, 1992
44. Report from the Board: Update from the LLLI Board of Directors La Leche League International
45. Are You Still Doing That? Andersen J
46. ''Texas Rich, The Hunt Dynasty'' by Harry Hunt III (W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1981), pp. 26-27.
47. Shared breastfeeding identified as new risk factor for HIV
48. http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020501/1845.html ''Aapf.org''
49. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00594.html ''FDA.gov''
Unnumbered references
★ Mother's Milk: Breastfeeding Controversies in American Culture, , Bernice, Hausman, New York: Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-415-96656-6
★ The Nursing Mother's Companion, , Kathleen, Huggins, Harvard Common Press, 1999, ISBN 1-55832-152-7
★ Breastfeeding Naturally, Lothrop H, , , Fisher Books, USA, 1998, ISBN 1-55561-131-1
★ Breastfeeding matters, Minchin M, , , Almo Press Publications, Australia, 1985, ISBN 0-86861-810-1
★ Breastfeeding your baby, Moody J, Britten J, Hogg K, , , National Childbirth Trust, UK, 1996, ISBN 0-7225-3635-6
★ The Breastfeeding Answer Book, Mohrbacher N, Stock J, , , La Leche League International, Schaumburg, Illinois, 2003, ISBN 0-912500-92-1
★ Nursing Mother, Working Mother: The Essential Guide for Breastfeeding and Staying Close to Your Baby After You Return to Work, , Gail, Pryor, Harvard Common Press, 1996, ISBN 1-55832-117-9
★ Successful Breastfeeding: A Practical Guide for Midwives, Royal College of Midwives, , , Royal College of Midwives, London, 1991, ISBN
★ Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives (Foundations of Human Behavior), Stuart-Macadam P, Dettwyler K, , , Aldine de Gruyter, 1995, ISBN 0-202-01192-5
★ Duration of breast feeding and arterial distensibility in early adult life: population based study, Leeson C, Kattenhorn M, Deanfield J, Lucas A, , , BMJ, 2001
Website references
★ American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement on Breastfeeding
★ 4woman.gov – US Department of Health & Human Services Breastfeeding resource page
★ Breastfeeding NHS – UK NHS Breastfeeding strategy
★ Royal Australasian College of Physicians Paediatric Policy: Breastfeeding
★ American Family Physician Initial Management of Breastfeeding by Keith Sinusas and Amy Galgliardi
★ Benefits of breastfeeding United States Breastfeeding Committee
★ Plan International
★ Mama's Baby: Happy, Healthy and Breastfed Black Women's health Imperative
★ The Adoptive Breastfeeding Resource Website
★ Breastfeeding Notes
★ Population Reports: Better Breastfeeding, Healthier Lives – Johns Hopkins INFO Project, 2006
★ Feminism and Breastfeeding from SignsJournal of Women in Culture and Society 2006, vol. 31, no.2
Infant pain and breastfeeding
★ American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health; Task Force on Pain in Infants, Children, and Adolescents. The assessment and management of acute pain in infants, children, and adolescents. ''Pediatrics''. 2001 Sep;108(3):793-7.
★ Howard CR, Howard FM, Weitzman ML. Acetaminophen analgesia in neonatal circumcision: the effect on pain. ''Pediatrics''. 1994;93(4):641-6.
★ The Womanly Art of Breastfeeding, Third Edition, July 1981. Pages 92–93 Elective Surgery for you or baby
★ See also the section on circumcision and breastfeeding in Medical analysis of circumcision
Health risks of formula feeding
★ Health risks of not breastfeeding US Department of Health & Human Services
★ The Risks of Infant Formula Feeding breastfeeding task force of Greater Los Angeles
★ Breastfeeding and the Risk of Postneonatal Death in the United States Pediatrics, Vol. 113 No. 5 May 2004 & resulting correspondence
★ Supplementation of the Breastfed Baby "Just One Bottle Won't Hurt" ...or Will It? by Marsha Walker RN IBCLC (National Alliance for Breastfeeding Advocacy)
★ Salon.com ''Formula for disaster'' by Katie Allison Granju
★ What should I know about infant formula? Kellymom.com (contains links to other websites)
★ National Alliance for Breastfeeding Advocacy contains links to other articles including:
★
★ Contaminants in Infant Formula
★
★ Recalls of Infant Feeding Products
External links
★ DIPEx breastfeeding module: Personal experiences of breastfeeding: video interviews with 49 women and two men
★ Human Milk Secretion: An Overview from the US National Institute of Health
★ reports regarding breastfeeding and U.S. law from the Congressional Research Service (CRS)
★ Breast-Feeding Best Bet for Babies — U.S. Food and Drug Administration article
★ Kellymom.com — Providing evidence based breastfeeding information
★ The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine — A physician breastfeeding organization
★ Breastfeeding Support and Advocacy Militant Breastfeeding Cult
★ What I wish I had been told before I breastfed for the first time
★ MOTHER.CULTURE.ART — Travelling Breastfeeding photography exhibition from artist Rachel Valley
★ theweaningroom - a site dedicated to all aspects of baby weaning inc. online weaning counsellor, recipes and community
Breastfeeding associations and organizations
★ Australian Breastfeeding Association — Non-profit breastfeeding support organization
★ INFACT Canada — Canadian breastfeeding promotion and rights
★ La Leche League International — Volunteer breastfeeding support organization
★ Spain: ''Federación Española de Asociaciones Pro-Lactancia (FEDALMA)''.
Videos
★ ''Instructional videos (with Norwegian comments, but written explanations in English)''
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