''See also:
British African-Caribbean community,
Caribbean British,
British Asian''
'Black British' is term which has had different meanings and uses as a racial and political label. Historically it has been used to refer to any non-
white British national. The term was first used to refer to the formal end of
colonial era where several major colonies gained so-called independence and thereby created a new form of
national identity. The term was at that time (1950s) used mainly to describe those from the former colonies of
India,
African, and
Caribbean colonies, ie the
New Commonwealth. In some circumstances the word "Black" still signifies all
ethnic minority populations.
[1]
More recently it has come to define a
British resident with specifically African ancestral origins, who self identifies, or is identified, as
"Black",
African or
African-Caribbean. Similar to
African immigrants to the United States, Black British also immigrate from other countries.
Currently, 'Black British' is used by the British authorities to mean UK passport holders of African/African-Caribbean origin (e.g. the usage of the
Commission for Racial Equality), but is historically used to include others, for instance for
British Asians or others of non-European descent who consider themselves involved in a struggle against
white racism.
Use of term
Historically, the term has most commonly been used to refer to those of
New Commonwealth origin. For example,
Southall Black Sisters was established in 1979 "to meet the needs of black (Asian and African-Caribbean) women"
[2] It was also used in a political sense to mean "not white British" - the main groups in the 1970s were from the
Caribbean and the
Indian subcontinent, but solidarity against racism extended the term to the
Irish population of Britain as well
[3][4]. Several organisations continue to use the term inclusively, such as the Black Arts Alliance
[5] and the
National Black Police Association[6]. This is unlike the official
British Census definition which adheres to the clear distinction between "British South Asians" and "British Blacks".
[7]
African British
The term "African British" has grown in popularity as an expression used to describe Black British people of specifically African ancestry. In 2005 a poll conducted by
Blacknet revealed that ''African British'' was the most popular term (40%) for referring to people of African descent in the United Kingdom. Also in a poll carried out by Afford (
African Foundation for Development) 50% of respondents agreed that African British should be the term adopted.
[8]. There is some confusion as to the use of the term between using it as an alternative to
Afro-Caribbean or as a term only for British people of direct African descent, who have no family connection with the
Caribbean or indeed
America.
In the more inclusive sense "Black British" is being used to mean "non-white British". In the more common, restrictive sense it is a synonym for African British.
Alternative usage: Sierra Leone
'Black British' was also an identity of
Black people in
Sierra Leone (known as the
Krio) who considered themselves
British. They are generally the descendants of black people who lived in England in the 18th century and freed black slaves who fought for the Crown in the
American Revolutionary War (see also
Black Loyalists). In
1787, hundreds of London's
Black poor (and 80 white women) agreed to go to this West African country on the condition that they would retain the status of
British subjects, to live in freedom under the protection of the
British Crown and be defended by the
Royal Navy.
History
Before the twentieth century
There is a history of African people in Britain since the soldiers of the
Roman Empire two thousand years ago. In
Historia Regum Britanniae Book IX ,
Geoffrey of Monmouth (c.1100 – c.1155) describes how the
Anglo-Saxons defeated the British thanks to the help of
Gormund, at the head of an army of Africans. However, as this is probably a reference to a
Vandal ruler of
North Africa,
[9] it is hard to assess to what extent these people can be regarded as "Black", given that the Vandals originated as a
Germanic tribe who merged with the population of North Africa, not
Sub-Saharan Africa.
Philippa of Hainault,
Queen Consort of
Edward III , is described in some sources as having been of African descent, though the evidence is debated and discounted by many historians.
In late
medieval times black Britons generally came from the sea-faring community.
The legality of slavery in
England had long been questionable following the Cartwright decision of 1569, when it was "resolved that England was too pure an air for a slave to breathe in." However, this case did not set a recognized precedent until it was brought up in the
Somerset case of 1772 (see generally,
Slavery at common law). In the early eighteenth century there are records of slave sales and the attempt to catch Africans described as escaped slaves. The precedent-setting Somerset case concerned a fugitive black
Virginia slave
James Somersett. Chief Justice
Mansfield (whose own presumed great-niece
Dido was of mixed race) concluded that Somerset had become free by setting foot in England.
The Black Londoners, encouraged by the
Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, decided to emigrate to
Sierra Leone to found the first British colony in Africa, very clearly demanded that their status as
British subjects be recognised, along with the duty of the British
Royal Navy to defend them.
Despite this, numbers of people with African origins were relatively small, though there were significant communities of
South Asians. However, the links established because of the
British Empire led to increased population movement and
immigration.
In a famous case an Indian Briton,
Dadabhai Naoroji, stood for election to
parliament for the
Liberal Party in 1886. He was defeated, leading the
leader of the Conservative Party,
Lord Salisbury to remark that "however great the progress of mankind has been, and however far we have advanced in overcoming prejudice, I doubt if we have yet got to the point of view where a British constituency would elect a black man".
[10] This led to much discussion about the applicability of the term "black" to
South Asians. Naoroji was subsequently elected to parliament in 1892, becoming the first Member of Parliament (MP) of Indian descent.
Twentieth century
Before the
Second World War, the largest Black communities were to be found in Britain's great
port cities:
London's
East End,
Liverpool,
Bristol and
Cardiff, with other communities in
South Shields and
Glasgow. The South Shields community (mostly South Asians and
Yemenis) were victims of the UK's first
race riot in 1919.
[11] Soon all the other towns with significant non-white communities were also hit by race riots which spread across the
Anglo-Saxon world. At this time, on
Australian insistence, the British refused to accept the
Racial Equality Proposal put forward by the
Japanese at the
Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Australian soldiers placed themselves in the front of the attacks on the Black community in
Butetown,
Cardiff.
It was in the period after the
Second World War, however, that the largest influx of black people occurred, mostly from the
British West Indies. This migration event is often labelled "Windrush", a reference to the
Empire Windrush, the ship that carried the first major group of Caribbean migrants to Britain in 1948.
[12] "Caribbean" is itself not one ethnic or political identity; for example, some of this wave of immigrants were
Indo-Caribbean. The most widely used term then used was "
West Indian" (or sometimes "coloured"); "Black British" did not come into widespread use until the second generation were born to these post-war immigrants to the country. Although British by nationality, due to friction between them and the white majority, they were often being born into communities that were relatively closed, creating the roots of what would become a distinct Black British identity.
Since the 1980s, the majority of black immigrants into the country have come directly from
Africa, in particular,
Nigeria and
Ghana in
West Africa,
Somalia and
Kenya in
East Africa, and
Zimbabwe and
South Africa in
Southern Africa. The African experience in Britain is not a homogenous one. For example, Nigerians and Ghanaians have been especially quick to accustom themselves to British life, with young Nigerians and Ghanaians achieving some of the best results at
GCSE and
A-Level. It has not been so easy for the growing Somali community, who suffer relatively high levels of
social exclusion and isolation. The rate of
inter-racial marriage between British citizens born in Africa and native Britons is still fairly low, compared to those from the Caribbean. This might change over time as Africans become more part of mainstream
British culture as second and third generation African communities become established.
Historically significant Black and mixed race Britons
Well-known Black and
mixed race Britons living before the
twentieth century include:
★
Dido Elizabeth Belle, born illegitimate in the mid-18th century and accepted into a family of
gentry. (mixed race)
★
George Bridgetower, born in
Poland, a virtuoso violinist, who lived in
England for much of his life. (mixed race)
★
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, composer, born in
Holborn,
London in 1875. (mixed race)
★ The
Chartist William Cuffay
★
William Davidson, executed as a
Cato Street conspirator
★
Olaudah Equiano (also called Gustavus Vassa). He was a former slave who
bought his freedom, moved to England, and settled in
Soham,
Cambridgeshire, where he married and wrote an autobiography; dying in 1797.
★
Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, pioneer of the
slave narrative
★
Ignatius Sancho, a grocer who also acquired a reputation as a
man of letters.
★ The
Spencean Robert Wedderburn
★
Nathaniel Wells, born
1779 in
St Kitts. The son of a
Welsh merchant, after inheriting his father's plantations, he became a wealthy land owner,
magistrate, and Britain's first black
sheriff. (mixed race)
Demographics
Areas with a large black community are:
(may include
mixed race)
★
London 10.91% Black
★
★
London Borough of Southwark 30.9% Black
★
★
London Borough of Lambeth 28.95% Black
★
★
London Borough of Hackney 28.9% Black
★
★
London Borough of Brent 25.8% Black
★
★
London Borough of Newham 25.3% Black
★
★
London Borough of Lewisham 23.4% Black
★
★
London Borough of Waltham Forest 20.7% Black
★
★
London Borough of Haringey 20.0% Black
★
★
London Borough of Hillingdon 13.3% Black
★
★
London Borough of Croydon 13.3% Black
★
Birmingham 9.0% Black
★
Leeds 1.44% Black
★
★
Chapeltown 52.96% Black
[13]
★
Manchester 8.5% Black
★
★
Moss Side 39.28% Black
★
Coventry 7.8% Black
★
Wolverhampton 7.3% Black
★
Leicester 5.4% Black
★
Bristol 4.38% Black
★
Huddersfield 3.4% Black
★
Sheffield 3.4% Black
★
Slough 5.1% Black
★
Luton 6.3% Black
★
Oxford 6.3% Black
★
Cambridge 5.1% Black
★
Cardiff 3.27% Black
★
Nottingham 4.3% Black
Since the
2001 census the population of the black community has risen, with large-scale migration from Africa, particularly from
Nigeria,
Ghana,
Somalia,
Angola and
The Congo. The population of blacks in these areas may now be higher.
In 2001, black people made up 2.2% of the population of
England. While this is a lower percentage than that of the
United States (12.9%), it is about the same as the proportion in
Canada (2.0%). However, as the population of the USA, UK and Canada vary dramatically, the actual black populations are considerably different. The black populations of
Scotland,
Wales and
Northern Ireland are considerably smaller than that of England, as is the case in may other
European countries. Due to many the fact most blacks have arrived in the U.K. in more recent times, Black British people have a much younger
population pyramid than
African-Americans, and the
British population in general. This means that even if there was more immigration, the Black British population would probably still continue to increase.
Culture
It has taken hundreds of years for the
Black British culture to develop and to become accepted in the mainstream. Some black
Liverpudlians can trace their roots in
Liverpool back as far back as ten generations
[14] There are still notable differences between Black Britons of different national backgrounds – but that culture has flourished until it has become an accepted and vital part of the culture of modern Britain, shared by those of all backgrounds.
Black British music
''See also:
Caribbean music in the United Kingdom''
Black British music is a long established and influential part of
British music. Its presence in Britain has been noted from
street musicians like
Billy Waters to concert performers like
George Bridgetower in the eighteenth century.
In the late 1970s and 1980s
2 Tone became popular with the
British youth, especially in the
West Midlands. A blend of
punk,
ska and
pop made it popular with both white and black audiences. Famous bands include
The Selecter,
The Specials,
The Beat and
Bodysnatchers.
Black British music sometimes reflects
Caribbean influences or takes inspiration from
Black American ones such as
hip hop and
rap. However, it is now developing its own distinctive identity.
Grime music was invented in London and is growing in popularity. Famous grime artists include
Dizzee Rascal,
Kano,
Wiley,
Lethal Bizzle, and
DJ Semtex. It is now common to hear British
MCs rapping in a strong
British accent.
Notable Black Britons
:''see also
List of black Britons''
There are examples of Blacks who have achieved success in practically every field of British life.
An example from television is reporter and newsreader Sir
Trevor McDonald, born in
Trinidad, who was knighted in 1999. McDonald is now seen as a part of the broadcasting establishment. His clear, confident delivery and serious attitude have made him one of British television's most trusted presenters, winning more awards than any other British broadcaster. Other examples from television are entertainer
Lenny Henry and chef
Ainsley Harriott.
Michael Fuller, after a successful career in the
Metropolitan Police, has been
Chief Constable of
Kent since 2004. He is the son of Jamaican immigrants who came to Britain in the 1950s. Fuller was brought up in
Sussex, where his interest in the
police force was encouraged by an officer attached to his school. He is a graduate in
social psychology.
[15]
In 2005 soldier
Johnson Beharry, born in
Grenada of mixed African and
East Indian roots, became the first man to win the
Victoria Cross, Britain's foremost military award for bravery, since the
Falklands War of 1982. He was awarded the medal for service in
Iraq in 2004.
In sport, prominent examples of success include boxing champion
Frank Bruno, whose career highlight was winning the WBC
world heavyweight championship in 1995. Altogether, he won 40 of his 45 contests. He is also well known for acting in
pantomime.
Lennox Lewis, born in
East London, is another successful Black British boxer and former undisputed heavyweight champion of the world. Recently,
Lewis Hamilton has created a major impact in the world of
Formula One racing, with many comparing his arrival in a largely white-dominated sport to that of
Tiger Woods in
golf.
Kelly Holmes, who won two gold medals in the
2004 Athens Olympics, also has black roots, her father being born in
Jamaica, while her mother is English. Lastly, the
English national football team had seven black or mixed-race players out of a total of 23 players on its
2006 FIFA World Cup roster that competed in
Germany.
Black people such as
Bernie Grant,
Oona King,
Paul Boateng and
Diane Abbott have made significant contributions to
politics and
trade unionism. Paul Boateng became the UK's first black
cabinet minister in 2002 when he was appointed as
Chief Secretary to the Treasury.
Bill Morris was elected
general secretary of the
Transport and General Workers' Union in 1992. He was
knighted in 2003, and in 2006 he took a seat in the
House of Lords as a working
life peer, Baron Morris of Handsworth.
Diane Abbott became the first black woman Member of Parliament when she was elected to the
House of Commons in the
1987 general election.
Valerie Amos became the first black woman cabinet minister and the first black woman to become
leader of the House of Lords.
Difficulties
There is much controversy surrounding the politics of
integrating Britain's black community, particularly concerning crime.
The poverty rate for Britain’s minority ethnic groups stands at 40%, double the 20% found amongst white British people, according to new research published in 2007 (30 April) by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF). Minority ethnic groups are also being overlooked for jobs and are being paid lower wages, despite improvements in education and qualifications. The research highlights the differences between minority ethnic groups with 45% of Black Africans and 30% of Indians and Black Caribbeans living in poverty. Over half of Black African children in the UK are growing up in poverty.
The research shows that people from minority ethnic groups who have higher educational achievements do not receive the same rewards as those from white British backgrounds with similar qualifications. A wide range of factors are shown to affect different groups and the research highlights how the Government needs to consider and implement more targeted policies.
According to the TUC report ''Black workers, jobs and poverty'',
[16] people from black and Asian groups are far more likely to be unemployed than the white population, despite having the required skills and qualifications. The rate of unemployment among the white population is only 11%, but among black groups it is 13%, mixed-race 15%, Indian 7%, Pakistani 15% and Bangladeshi 17%. The usual argument to counter high unemployment rates among black and Asian people - namely that they lack the necessary skills and qualifications - does not bear merit, the report states. For example, 81.4% of black and Asian people with degrees are employed, compared with 87.4% of white people. Furthermore, a white person whose highest qualification is GCSE’s at grades A-C is more likely to have a job than a black or Asian person with A-levels.
Both racist crime and black on black gang-related crime continues to effect black communities. Numerous deaths in police custody of black men have grown a general distrust of police amongst urban blacks in the UK. According to the Metropolitan Police Authority in 2002-2003 of the 17 deaths in police custody, 10 were black or Asian. The government reports
[17] the overall number of racist incidents recorded by the police rose by 7% from 49,078 in 2002/3 to 52,694 in 2003/4.
While the media has highlighted black gangs and black on black violence, it should be noted that according to the Home Office report
[17], 10% of all homicide victims between 2000 and 2004 were black. Of these, 44% were murdered by non-blacks. This compares with 8% of whites murdered by non-whites.
Black people, who according to government statistics
[19] make up 2% of the population, are the principal suspects in 11.7% of homicides, i.e. in 252 out of 2163 homicides committed 2001/2, 2002/3, and 2003/4.
[20]. It should be noted that, judging on the basis of prison population, a substantial minority (about 35%) of black criminals in the UK are not British citizens but
foreign nationals.
[21]
After several high-profile investigations such as that of the murder of
Stephen Lawrence, the police have often been accused of racism, from both within and outside the service.
Cressida Dick, head of the
Metropolitan Police's anti-racism unit in 2003, remarked that it was 'difficult to imagine a situation where we will say we are no longer
institutionally racist'.
[22]
See also
Groups included in "Black British"
★
British African-Caribbean community
★
British Mixed
★
British Somalis
★
Caribbean British
★
Nigerian British
Groups outside Britain
★
Black Canadian
★
African Americans
★
Afro Australian
★
Black people in Ireland
Other links
★
Afro-European
★
List of black Britons
★
100 Great Black Britons
★
Black Loyalist
External links
★
The Black Presence in Britain
★
Blacknet UK
★
blackhistory4schools.com
★
Black Youth Empowerment UK
★
Caribbean community in London
★
100 Greatest Black Britons
★
African British identity tops poll
★
Weaver v NATFHE In the Weaver v NATFHE (now part of the UCU) race discrimination case an Industrial Tribunal upheld a union’s decision not to assist a Black woman lecturer, at Bournville College, Birmingham, who brought a case of racial harassment against a fellow worker at Bournville College of Further Education because he could lose his job. The Employment Appeal Tribunal upheld the decision.
★
Reassessing what we collect website - The African Community in London History of African London with objects and images
★
Reassessing what we collect website - The Caribbean Community in London History of Caribbean London with objects and images
References
1. Glossary of terms relating to ethnicity and race: for reflection and debate R Bhopal. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. Accessed ''6th October 2006''
2. Southall Black Sisters website
3. What is meant by Black and Asian? "In the 1970s Black was used as a political term to encompass many groups who shared a common experience of oppression - this could include Asian but also Irish, for example"
4. The term Black and Asian - a Short History "In the late 1960’s through to the mid 1980’s, we progressives called ourselves Black. This was not only because the word was reclaimed as a positive, but we also knew that we shared a common experience of racism because of our skin colour."
5. The Black Arts Alliance encourages "a coming together of Black people from Africa, Asia and the Caribbean because our histories have parallels of oppression"
6. National Black Police Association states that their "emphasis is on the common experience and determination of the people of African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin to oppose the effects of racism."
7. Census classifications
8. African British identity tops poll
9. Gormund the Vandal
10. The Capital's history uncovered
11. Tyne Roots
12. http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/ss-windrush icons: a portrait of England: SS Empire Windrush
13. http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=3&b=295729&c=leeds+042e&d=141&e=15&g=382473&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&enc=1
14. ''Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730 - 1918'' by Ray Costello, The City of Liverpool, 2001
15. http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/alumni/notable_alumni/interviews/Fuller_interview.html
16. www.tuc.org.uk/welfare/tuc-10172-f0.pdf
17. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/s95race04.pdf.
18. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/s95race04.pdf.
19. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273; accessed 21 May
20. Table 3.6 of Home Office publication "Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2004"
21. Chapter 9, tables 9.1 - 9.4, of Home Office publication "Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2004"
22. http://www.guardian.co.uk/lawrence/Story/0,,941167,00.html
★
The Black Presence in Britain - Black British History
★ The Scarman Report into the Brixton Riots of 1981.
★ The Macpherson Report into the death of Stephen Lawrence.
★
Brixton Overcoat, ISBN 978-0-9552841-0-6
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