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In Spanish history, a 'real audiencia' (''royal audiency'') was a judicial district that functioned as an appeals court. Each audiencia had ''oidores'' (Spanish: ''hearer'', a judge). The first audiencia was founded at Valladolid in the kingdom of Castile in 1371. The Valladolid Audiencia functioned as the highest court in Castile for the next two centuries. After the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon to form the crown of Spain and the Spanish conquest of Granada in 1492, the audiencia was divided in two, with the Audiencia of Valladolid taking cases from north of the River Tagus (Tajo), and the Audiencia of Granada (1494) taking cases from south of the river.
Under Charles V and Philip II, the audiencia system was extended first to Aragon (1528) and then to the rest of the Spanish Empire. Audiencias in cities that belong to Spain today included Seville (1566), Las Palmas (1568), Mallorca (1571), Asturias (1717), and Extremadura (1790).
Audiencias in Spanish possessions in Europe included Sardinia (1564-1718) and Sicily (1569-1815).
The Spanish crown imposed the audiencia system on the Americas as part of its campaign to bring the area and its Spanish settlers and conquerors under royal control. The first audiencia in the Americas was established at Santo Domingo (modern Dominican Republic) in 1511; it was quickly suppressed due to opposition by the Spanish settlers, but was re-established permanently in 1526. As the Spanish conquest of the Americas continued, further audiencias were founded.
In what became the Viceroyalty of New Spain, there were audiencias in Mexico City (1527; covered the central part of what is now Mexico), Guatemala (1543; covered Central America), Guadalajara or Nueva Galicia (1548; covered what is now northern Mexico), and Manila (1583; covered the Philippines).
In what became the Viceroyalty of Peru, there were audiencias in Panama (1538); Lima (1543; modern Peru); Santa Fe de Bogotá or Nueva Granada (1548, modern Colombia); Charcas (1559, modern Bolivia); Quito (1565, modern Ecuador), and Concepción de Chile (1565-1575). The latter was replaced by the Audiencia of Santiago de Chile (1609). The final colonial audiencias were created at Buenos Aires (Argentina) in 1661, Caracas (Venezuela) in 1786, and Cuzco (Peru) in 1787.
In the viceregal capitals of Spanish America, such as Mexico City and Lima, the viceroy himself served as an ''presidente'' (president) of the audiencia. In the capitals of provincial judicial districts, the head ''oidor'' was the president of the audiencia. In addition to their judicial functions, the colonial audiencias sometimes exercised legislative and executive functions.