The , was a period in the
history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding
Kofun period. The Yamato state evolved much during the Asuka period, which is named after the
Asuka region, about 25 km south to the modern city of
Nara. Numerous imperial palaces were established in the area during this period.
The Asuka period is also known for its significant artistic, social, and political transformations, having their origins in the late Kofun period, but largely affected by the arrival of
Buddhism to Japan. The introduction of Buddhism has marked a change in Japanese society. The Asuka period is also distinguished by the change in the name of the country from to .
Artistically, the period can be further divided into two periods, the Asuka period (up to the
Taika Reforms), where early Buddhist culture imports and infuences are seen from
Northern Wei and
Baekje, and HakuhÅ period (after Taika Reform), in which more
Sui and
Tang influences appears.
[1][2]
Naming
The term "Asuka period" was first used to describe a period in the history of Japanese fine-arts and architecture. It was proposed by fine-arts scholars and around 1900. Sekino dated the Asuka period as ending with the
Taika Reform of
646. Okakura, however, saw it as ending with the transfer of the capital to the of Nara. Although historians generally use Okakura's dating, many historians of art and architecture prefer Sekino's dating, and use the term "" to refer to the successive period.
The Yamato state
The Yamato
polity, which had emerged by the late 5th century, was distinguished by powerful great clans or extended families, including their dependents. Each clan was headed by a
patriarch who performed sacred rites for the clan's to ensure the long-term welfare of the clan. Clan members were the aristocracy, and the kingly line that controlled the Yamato court was at its pinnacle. The local chieftainship of Yamato arose to become the Imperial dynasty from the beginnings of Asuka period, at latest.
[3]
The actual start of Yamato rule is disputed. Its paramountcy in Japan presumably starts only in the end of
Kofun period or with the advent of Asuka period.
The Asuka period, as a sub-division of the , is the first period of
Japanese history when the Japanese imperial court ruled relatively uncontested from modern-day
Nara Prefecture, then known as
Yamato Province.
The
Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, exercised power over clans in
Kyūshū and
Honshū, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on
Chinese models (including the adoption of the
Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit of the system was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; other were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.
The Yamato court had ties to the
Gaya confederacy of the Korean peninsula, called in Japanese. There is archaeological evidence from the Kofun tombs, which show similarities in form, art, and clothing of the depicted nobles. A second source is the
Nihon Shoki. For a time, many Japanese historians claimed Gaya to be a colony of the Yamato state, a theory that is now widely rejected. More likely all these Korean and Japanese states were tributaries to the
Chinese Sui and
T'ang dynasties to some extent.
The Soga clan and ShÅtoku Taishi
The intermarried with the
imperial family, and by
587 Soga no Umako, the Soga chieftain, was powerful enough to install his nephew as
emperor and later to assassinate him and replace him with the
Empress Suiko (r.
593-
628).
Suiko, the first of eight sovereign empresses, was merely a figurehead for Umako and Prince Regent (
574-
622).
ShÅtoku, recognized as a great intellectual of this period of reform, was a devout
Buddhist, and well-read in
Chinese literature. He was influenced by Confucian principles, including the
Mandate of Heaven, which suggested that the sovereign ruled at the will of a supreme force. Under ShÅtoku's direction, Confucian models of rank and etiquette were adopted, and his prescribed ways to bring
harmony to a society chaotic in Confucian terms.
In addition, ShÅtoku adopted the
Chinese calendar, developed a system of trade roads (the aforementioned ''GokishichidÅ''), built numerous
Buddhist temples, had court chronicles compiled, sent students to
China to study Buddhism and Confucianism, and sent to China as an .
Numerous official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. The sending of such scholars for learning Chinese political systems showed significant change from envoys in the Kofun period, in which sent envoys for approval of their domains.
In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, ShÅtoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence, which was addressed
::''"From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun."''
Some would argue that ShÅtoku's bold step set a precedent -- Japan never again accepted a "subordinate" status in its relations with China,
except for
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, who accepted certain relationship with China
in the 15th century.
[4]
As a result, Japan at this period was a state which received no title from Chinese dynasties while they did send tributes (æœ‰è²¢ç„¡å° ''yÅ«kÅ-mufÅ«''). From the Chinese point of view, the class or position of Japan was demoted from previous centuries in which the kings received titles. On the other hand, Japan loosened political relationships with China and consequently established extraordinary cultural and intellectual relationships.
[5][éš‹å”使ã®èµ´å€ã¨ãã®å„€ç¤¼å•é¡Œ å°æ¹¾å¤§å¦æ´å²å¦ç³»ã€€é«˜æ˜Žå£« [1]]
Taika Reform and ''ritsuryo'' system
Taika Reform
Main articles: Taika Reform
About twenty years after the deaths of ShÅtoku Taishi (in 622), Soga no Umako (in
626), and Empress Suiko (in 628), court intrigues over succession led to a palace coup in
645 against the
Soga clan's monopolized control of the government. The revolt was led by and (Fujiwara no Kamatari), who seized control of the court from the Soga family and introduced the .
The
Japanese era corresponding to the years 645-649 was thus named , referring to the Reform, and meaning "great change." The revolt leading to the Taika Reform is commonly called the , referring to the
Chinese zodiac year in which the coup took place, 645.
Although it did not constitute a legal code, the Taika Reform mandated a series of reforms that established the system of social, fiscal, and administrative mechanisms of the seventh to tenth centuries. was a code of penal laws, while was an administrative code. Combined, the two terms came to describe a system of patrimonial rule based on an elaborate legal code that emerged from the Taika Reform.
The Taika Reform, influenced by
Chinese practices, started with land redistribution, aimed at ending the existing landholding system of the great clans and their control over domains and occupational groups. What were once called "private lands and private people" became , as the court now sought to assert its control over all of Japan and to make the people direct subjects of the throne. Land was no longer hereditary but reverted to the state at the death of the owner. Taxes were levied on harvests and on silk, cotton, cloth, thread, and other products. A
corvée (labor) tax was established for military conscription and building public works. The hereditary titles of clan chieftains were abolished, and three ministries were established to advise the throne:
★ the
★ the
★ the
The country was divided into provinces headed by governors appointed by the court, and the provinces were further divided into districts and villages.
Naka no ÅŒe assumed the title of
Crown Prince, and Kamatari was granted a new family name——in recognition of his great service to the imperial family. became the first in a long line of court aristocrats. Another, long-lasting change was the use of the name , or sometimes Dai Nippon (Great Japan) in diplomatic documents and chronicles. In
662, following the reigns of Naka no ÅŒe's uncle and mother, Naka no ÅŒe assumed the throne as , taking the additional title (heavenly sovereign). This new title was intended to improve the Yamato clan's image and to emphasize the divine origins of the imperial family in the hope of keeping it above political frays, such as those precipitated by the Soga clan. Within the imperial family, however, power struggles continued as the emperor's brother and son vied for the throne. The brother, who later reigned as
Emperor Temmu, consolidated Tenji's reforms and state power in the imperial court.
''RitsuryÅ'' system
The ''ritsuryÅ'' system was codified in several stages. The , named after the provincial site of Emperor Tenji's court, was completed in about
668. Further codification took place with the promulgation by
Empress Jito in
689 of the , named for the location of the late Emperor Temmu's court. The ''ritsuryÅ'' system was further consolidated and codified in
701 under the , which, except for a few modifications and being relegated to primarily ceremonial functions, remained in force until
1868.
Though ''Ritsu'' of the code was adopted from the Chinese system, ''RyÅ'' was arranged in a local style. Some scholars argues that the it was to certain extent based on Chinese models.
[6]
The TaihÅ Code provided for Confucian-model penal provisions (light rather than harsh punishments) and Chinese-style central administration through the '' (Department of Rites), which was devoted to
Shinto and court rituals, and the '' (
Department of State), with its eight ministries (for central administration, ceremonies, civil affairs, the imperial household, justice, military affairs, people's affairs, and the treasury). Although the
Chinese-style civil service examination system was not adopted, was founded for training future bureaucrats based on the Confucian classics. Tradition circumvented the system, however, as aristocratic birth continued to be the main qualification for higher position, and titles were soon hereditary again. The TaihÅ Code did not address the selection of the sovereign. Several empresses reigned from the fifth to the eighth centuries, but after
770 succession was restricted to males, usually from father to son, although sometimes from ruler to brother or uncle.
, son of
Nakatomi no Kamatari, was among those who produced the TaihÅ RitsuryÅ. According to history book , two of the 19 members of the committee drafting the
Taiho Code were Chinese priests (Shoku-Shugen and Satsu-Koukaku).
[7][8] Chinese priests took an active part as a linguistic specialist, and received the reward of two times from the
Empress Jito.
Exchange with mainland Asia
Since the
7th century, the Yamato government sent envoys directly to the
Chinese court, from which it obtained a great wealth of philosophical and social structure. In addition to ethics of government, it also adopted the
Chinese calendar and many of China's religious practices, including
Confucianism and
Taoism. Prince Shotoku prescribed a new constitution for Japan based on the Chinese model.
Japan had been very positive in the
Kofun period, towards the introduction of
Chinese culture and immigration of population. However, the Asuka period shows a marked change in the attitude: Japan started to be a national state with its own population and culture. It focused on assimilating earlier waves of immigrants into a single people.
Torai-jin
Chinese and Korean immigrants who became naturalized in ancient Japan were called . They introduced many aspects of their language, culture, and traditions to their adoptive country. Japan gave preferential treatment to these ''torai-jin'' because the Yamato Court valued their knowledge and culture.
According to the record of , an aristocratic list of names that the Yamato Imperial Court officially compiled in
815, one-third of the noble families on the list had their origins in China or Korea. 163 of the 1182 listed were from China, and more than 240 were from the Korean peninsula (104 form
Baekje, 41 from
Goguryeo, and 9 from
Silla).
[9]
Buddhism and the Confucianism had a huge influence on Japanese philosophy. Japan also absorbed many other elements of Chinese technology and culture, including the writing system, architecture, and methods of producing steel. In addition, many Chinese scholars (''続守言 , 薩弘æª'') were on committees that drew up legal codes, thus having a strong influence on the emerging Japanese legal system.
However, these immigrants are generally treated as lower class in ''
Kabane'' systems which classifies the various clan members of the court. They are generally ranked as "Atai", "Miyatsuko", or "Fubito", while members of ruling clans such as Soga, Mononobe, and Nakatomi are ranked as "Omi" or "Muraji".
Immigrants from China
An example of a typical descendant clan is the Yamatonoaya clan (''æ±æ¼¢æ°''), which is descended from
Emperor Ling of Han. This clan's leader was Achi-no-Omi (''阿智使主''). He introduced many elements of Chinese culture to Japan. According to the
Nihongi, during Emperor Kimmei's reign the
Hata clan (''秦æ°''), descendants of
Qin Shi Huang, introduced
sericulture (silk production). The Kawachino-Fumi clan (''西文æ°''), descendants of
Gaozu of Han, introduced Chinese writing to the Yamato court, according to the ''Shinsen-shÅjiroku''. The Takamoku clan is a descendant of
Cao Pi.
[10][11] was a central member of the committee which wrote the
Taika Reform. , also from China, was one of the most active artists in the Asuka period.
Refugees from the Korean peninsula
In
660, one of the three kingdoms of Korea,
Baekje, fell to
Silla and
T'ang China. Subsequently, quite a large number of refugees from Baekje migrated to Japan.
This in
HÅryÅ«-ji temple is the oldest such wooden tower in the world.
The Yamato Imperial Court accepted the royal family and the refugees of Baekje. The royal family of Baekje received the name "
Kudara no Konikishi" (百済王, lit. ''kings of Baekje'') from the emperor.
The number of refugees and their significant cultural impact during this evolutionary period was downplayed during the occupation of Korea in the earlier part of the twentieth century for political reasons. Most Japanese historians now agree that, in addition to strong influences from
China, immigration from Baekje also contributed major elements in the cultural flowering of the subsequent
Nara period.
Introduction of Buddhism
The introduction of to Japan is attributed to the
Baekje king
Seong in
538, exposing Japan to a new body of religious doctrine. The
Soga clan, a Japanese court family that rose to prominence with the ascension of the
Emperor Kimmei about
531, favored the adoption of Buddhism and of governmental and cultural models based on
Chinese Confucianism. But some at the Yamato court—such as the
Nakatomi family, which was responsible for performing
Shinto rituals at court, and the
Mononobe, a military clan—were set on maintaining their prerogatives and resisted the alien religious influence of Buddhism. The Soga introduced Chinese-modeled fiscal policies, established the first national treasury, and considered the kingdoms of Korea as trade partners rather than as objects of territorial expansion. Acrimony continued between the Soga and the Nakatomi and Mononobe clans for more than a century, during which the Soga temporarily emerged ascendant. In the
Taika Reform, the Funeral Simplification Edict was proclaimed, and building of large ''kofun'' (
tumuli) was banned. The edict also regulated size and shape of ''kofun'' by classes.
As a result, later ''kofun'', though much smaller, were distinguished by elaborate frescoes. Paintings and decorations of those ''kofun'' indicate the spread of Taoism and Buddhism in this period. The
Takamatsuzuka Kofun and
Kitora Kofun are the most famous for their wall paintings.
With the dawn of the Asuka period the use of elaborate
kofun tombs by the
imperial family and other elite fell out of use because of prevailing new Buddhist beliefs, which put greater emphasis on the transience of human life. Commoners and the elite in outlying regions, however, continued to use kofun until the late seventh century, and simpler but distinctive tombs continued in use throughout the following period.
Foreign relations
From
600 to
659, Japan sent seven emissaries to
T'ang China. But for the next 32 years, during a period when Japan was formulating its laws based on Chinese texts, none were sent. Though Japan cut off diplomatic relations with China, Japan sent 11 emissaries to
Silla, and Silla is also recorded in
Nihon Shoki as sending embassies to Japan 17 times during the reigns of
Emperor Temmu and
Empress JitÅ. The ruling classes of Yamato and Baekje were on amicable terms, and Yamato deployed its navy to aid Baekje, in
660-
663, against an invasion by
Silla and
T'ang China (see
battle of Baekgang).
As an alternative to journeying to China, many priests from the
Three Kingdoms of Korea were sent to Japan. As a result, This also created the incidental effect of Japanese military support for
Baekje.
[12] Some well-known priests who came from the Korean peninsula were
Eji,
Ekan,
Eso, and
Kanroku. Eji, who came from
Goguryeo was a tutor to
Prince Shotoku, and counseled him politically.
[13]
Influence of Taoism
Taoism was also introduced during the Asuka period. In the mid-7th century,
Empress Saimei built a Taoist temple at
Mt. TÅnomine (多æ¦å³¯è«‡å±±). Many stone turtles (亀石, ''kameishi''), a form common among Taoist sites, have been discovered in Asuka and are assumed to have been created during Saimei's reign. The octagonal shape of monarchs' tombs of this age and the celestial maps drawn in Kitora and Takamatsuzuka also reflect the Taoist cosmology. ''TennÅ'' (Emperor), the new title of the Japanese monarch in this period, could also be argued to derive from the name of the supreme God of Taoism, ''Tenko-Taitei''(天皇大å¸), the God of
Polaris.
Taoist belief was eventually amalgamated with ShintÅ and Buddhism to establish new styles of rituals.
OnmyÅdÅ, a sort of Japanese geomancy and cosmology, is one of the fruits of those religious mixtures. While the Asuka period started with conflict of religious belief between clans, later in the period, the imported religions became syncetized with Japan's native folk beliefs.
Art and architecture
Asuka culture
Korean architecture of the time was a stylistic link between classical Chinese architecture and later Japanese buildings. The construction of the original and reconstructed
HÅryÅ«-ji was also strongly influenced by Culture of
silk road.　For instance, the pillar in
HÅryÅ«-ji is similar to the pillar of
Parthenon of
ancient Greece, as seen in its
entasis. After the tower in
India (
Stupa) had been converted by architectural technology of
China, it became a five-storied pagoda (''五é‡ã®å¡”'') in Japan.
The early Buddhist architectures in Japan having built with the aid of immigrants from Baekje, surviving buildings provide scholars with examples of how Chinese and Korean architecture of the same era looked.
The unusual lateral orientation of the main hall and
pagoda of HÅryÅ«-ji is, however, not found in sites in China or Korea.
[14] The arrangement of buildings within the precinct of HÅryÅ«-ji is similar to the buddhist temple style of
Buyeo, HÅryÅ«-ji style is called "ShitennÅji-Garan (四天王寺伽è—)" or "Wakakusa-Garan(è‹¥è‰ä¼½è—)".
[15]
Decorated tombs and painted tumuli which date from the fifth century and later found in Japan are generally accepted as Korean exports to Japan. The Takamatsuzuka tomb even features paintings of women in distinctive clothes also seen in
Goguryeo wall painting.
[16][17]
The Japanese Buddhist sculpture art of this period is believed to have followed the style of the Six Dynasties of China. The characteristics of the sculptures of this age is also referred to as Tori Style, taken from the name of the prominent sculptor
Kuratsukuri Tori, grandson of Chinese immigrant
Shiba Tatto.
[18]
Some of the characteristics of the style include marked, almond-shaped eyes, and symmetrically arranged folds in the clothing. The most striking and distinguishing feature of these sculptures is an expression of the smile that is called
Archaic smile.
Asuka Daibutsu, the Shaka triad produced by
Kuratsukuri Tori for the HÅryÅ«-ji, is one of the best Buddha arts of that time.
HakuhÅ culture
The second stage of Buddhist art, coming after the Asuka (culture) period, is known as
HakuhÅ culture() and is generally dated from the
Taika Reform (646) until the moving of the capital to Nara in 710. During the latter half of the 8th century, a large number of songs and poems were composed and performed by various ranked people from warriors to the Emperor. The earliest collection of these poems is known as
Man'yÅshÅ«. It includes works by several remarkable poets such as
Nukatano Okimi () and
Kakinomoto Hitomaro ().
Waka, which literally means Japanese song, also emerged as a new form of poetry at this time. It was conceived as a term to distinguish native styles from those imported from China; within the umbrella of ''waka'' poetry, one of the more popular forms is known as ''tanka''. It consists of a total of 31 syllables divided over five lines, in the syllabic pattern 5/7/5/7/7.
[19]
Events
★ 538: The Korean kingdom of Baekje dispatches a delegation to introduce Buddhism to the Japanese emperor.
★ 593:
Prince Shotoku is assigned as regent of
Empress Suiko and promotes Buddhism with Soga clan.
★ 600: Yamato state sends the first official Japanese mission to China since 478.
★ 604: Prince Shotoku issues a Chinese-style constitution (
Seventeen-article constitution), based on Confucian principles, which de facto inaugurated the Japanese Empire.
★ 607:
Prince Shotoku builds the Buddhist temple HÅryÅ«ji in Ikaruga.
★ 645: Soga no Iruka and his father Emishi are killed in the
Isshi Incident.
Emperor Kotoku ascends to the throne and strengthens imperial power over aristocratic clans (see
Taika Reform), turning their states into provinces.
★ 663: Japanese navy was defeated by Silla-Tang allies in
Battle of Baekgang, failing to restore Baekje.
★ 670: First
Family registry (KÅgo-Nenjaku) was compiled.
★ 672: Prince ÅŒama, later
Emperor Temmu usurped the throne by winning the civil war (
Jinshin no Ran) against
Emperor Kobun.
★ 689:
Asuka Kiyomihara Code was proclaimed.
★ 701:
TaihÅ code was proclaimed.
References
★ -
Japan
1. Gardner's art through the ages, Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J. Mamiya, , , Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005,
2. Lonely Planet Japan, , Chris, Rowthorne, Lonely Planet Publications, 2003,
3.
4. Yoshimitsu, in 1404, accepted the "King of Japan" title in his willingness to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wako threat, thus establishing trades with China. This was considered as tribute by the Chinese but the Japanese saw it as profitable trade. This relationship lasted for about 50 years.(see also ''Sinocentrism'').
5. The Cambridge history of Japan, general editors, John W. Hall... [et al, , , Cambridge University Press, 1988,
6. William Wayne Farris, ''Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan'', University of Hawaii Press, 1998. [2].
7. 續日本紀　å·ç¬¬ä¸€ã€€æ–‡æ¦ç´€ä¸€[3]
8. 『続日本紀ã€å›½å²å¤§ç³»ç‰ˆ
[4]
9. The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan, , W. G., Beasley, University of California Press, Aug 31, 2000, ISBN 0-520-22560-0
10. "Shinsen-shÅjiroku" shizoku ichiran 『新撰姓æ°éŒ²ã€æ°æ—一覧
11. Nihon no myÅji 7000 ketsu seishi ruibetsu taikan Takamuko uji 日本ã®è‹—å—7000å‚‘ 姓æ°é¡žåˆ¥å¤§è¦³ 高å‘æ°
12. Sansom, George (1958). 'A History of Japan to 1334'. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 47-49.
13. Encyclopedia of World Biography on Shotoku Taishi [5]
14. Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture, , , , , ,
15. The Archaeology of Korea, , Sarah Milledge, Nelson, Cambridge University Press, , ISBN 0-521-40783-4
16. Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan, , , , , ,
17. Complex of Koguryo Tombs
18. Tori style
19. Asuka Period
''This period is part of the
Yamato period of
Japanese History.''
<
Kofun period |
History of Japan |
Nara period >
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