'Assam' (
Assamese:
অসম ''Ôxôm'') is a
north eastern state of
India with its capital at
Dispur, a suburb of the city
Guwahati. Located south of the eastern
Himalayas, Assam comprises the
Brahmaputra and the
Barak river valleys and the
Karbi Anglong and the
North Cachar Hills. With an area of Assam currently is almost equivalent to the size of
Ireland or
Austria. Assam is surrounded by the rest of the ''
Seven Sister States'':
Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland,
Manipur,
Mizoram,
Tripura and
Meghalaya. These states are connected to the rest of India via a narrow strip in
West Bengal called the "
Chicken's Neck".
[1] Assam also shares international borders with
Bhutan and
Bangladesh; and cultures, peoples and climate with
South-East Asia—important elements in India's Look East Policy.
Assam Tea
Assam is known for
Assam tea,
petroleum resources,
Assam silk and for its rich
biodiversity. It has successfully conserved the one-horned
Indian rhinoceros from near extinction in
Kaziranga, the
tiger in
Manas and provides one of the last wild habitats for the
Asian elephant. It is increasingly becoming a popular destination for wild-life tourism and notably Kaziranga and Manas are both
World Heritage Sites.
[2] Assam was also known for its
Sal tree
forests and forest products, much depleted now. A land of high rainfall, Assam is endowed with lush greenery and the mighty river
Brahmaputra, whose tributaries and
oxbow lakes provide the region with a unique hydro-
geomorphic and aesthetic environment.
Etymology
Main articles: Etymology of Assam
Assam was referred to as Pragjyotishpura in the
Mahabharata; and
Kamarupa in the
1st millennium. After the disintegration of Kamarupa in the 12th century the
Ahom kingdom was founded in the 13th century by
Sukaphaa, a
Shan prince, which unified the polity and lasted for the next 600 years. Though the precise
etymology of ''Assam'' is unclear, the academic consensus is that the name is associated with the
Ahom kingdom (originally called the
Kingdom of Assam).
[3]
The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as ''Assam''. On
February 27,
2006 the
Government of Assam started a process to change the name of the state to ''Asom'',
[4] a controversial move that has been opposed by peoples and political organizations.
[5]
Physical geography
Main articles: Physical Geography of Assam
Assam Valley and Environs
, as per the
plate techtonics, Assam is in the eastern most projection of the
Indian Plate, where it is thrusting underneath the
Eurasian Plate creating a
subduction zone.
[6] It is postulated that due to the northeasterly movement of the Indian plate, the sediment layers of an ancient geocyncline called
Tethys (in between Indian and Eurasian Plates) have been pushed upwardly to form the
Himalayas. It is estimated that the height of the Himalayas is increasing around 4 cm each year. Therefore, Assam possesses a unique
geomorphic environment, with plain areas, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and with the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.
Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra is a paleo-river, older than the Himalayas, which often crosses higher altitudes in the Himalayas and sustaining its flow by eroding at a greater pace than the increase in the height of the mountain range. The heights of the surrounding regions are still increasing to form steep
gorges in Arunachal. Entering Assam, the Brahmaputra becomes a
braided river and along with its tributaries, creates the flood plain of the Brahmaputra Valley
[7] The Brahmaputra Valley in Assam is approximately 80 to 100 km wide and almost 1000 km long and the width of the river itself is 16 km at many places.
The hills of
Karbi Anglong and
North Cachar and those in and around Guwahati and North Guwahati (along with the Khasi and Garo Hills) are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.
[8] These are eroded and dissected by the numerous rivers in the region. Average height of these hills in Assam varies from 300 to 400mt. The southern
Barak Valley is separated by the Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills from the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam. The Barak originates from the Barail Range in the border areas of Assam, Nagaland and Manipur and flowing through the district of Cachar, it confluences with the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. Barak Valley in Assam is a small valley with an average width and length of approximately 40 to 50 km.
Assam is endowed with
petroleum,
natural gas,
coal,
limestone and many other minor minerals such as
magnetic quartzite,
kaolin,
sillimanites,
clay and
feldspar[9]. A small quantity of iron ore is also available in western parts of Assam.
[9] The Upper Assam districts are the major reserves of oil and gas. Petroleum was discovered in Assam in 1889. A recent USGS estimate shows approximately 399 million barrels of oil, 1178 billion cubic feet of gas and 67 million barrels of natural gas liquids in Assam Geologic Province.
[11]
A White-winged Wood Duck or ''Deuhnah''
A Golden Langur
.jpg)
Areca Nut Tree or Tamul Goss
With the 'Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate', Assam is a temperate region and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.
[8] [13] Winter lasts from late October to late February. The minimum temperature is 6 to 8
degrees Celsius. Nights and early mornings are foggy, and rain is scanty. Summer starts in mid May, accompanied by high humidity and rainfall. The maximum temperature is 35 to 38 degrees Celsius, but the frequent rain reduces this. The peak of the
monsoons is during June.
Thunderstorms known as ''Bordoicila'' are frequent during the afternoons. Spring and Autumn with moderate temperatures and modest rainfall are the most comfortable seasons.
Assam is one of the richest
biodiversity zones in the world. There are number of tropical
rainforests
[14] in Assam. Moreover, there are riverine
grasslands[15],
bamboo[16] orchards and numerous
wetland[17] ecosystems. Many of these areas have been protected by developing national parks and reserved forests. The
Kaziranga and
Manas are the two
World Heritage Sites. The Kaziranga is the home for the rare
Indian Rhinoceros, while Manas is a tiger sanctuary. Moreover, there are numerous other valuable and rare wildlife and plant species available in Assam. Few of the rarest species are the
Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei), the
White-winged Wood Duck or ''Deuhnah'' (Cairina scultulata), the Golden Cat, etc. The
Hoolock Gibbon in Assam is the only ape found in South Asia. Assam is also known for
orchids.
[18]
The region is also prone to natural disasters. High rainfall, deforestation, and other factors have resulted in annual floods that cause widespread loss of life, livelihood and property. The region is also prone to earthquakes. Mild tremors are familiar, and strong earthquakes are rare. There have been three strong earthquakes: in 1869 the bank of the Barak sank by 15 ft; 1897 (8.1 on the
Richter scale); and 1950 (8.6).
History
Main articles: History of Assam
Pre-history and myths
Assam and adjoining regions have evidence of human settlement from all periods of the
Stone ages. That the known hills settlements belonged to earlier periods may suggest that the valleys were populated later, or it may reflect sampling bias due to mountainous areas being more likely to remain less disturbed over long stretches of time.
The earliest ruler according to legend was Mahiranga (sanskritized form of the Tibeto-Burman name Mairang). He was followed by others in his line: Hatak, Sambar, Ratna and Ghatak. Naraka removed this line of rulers and established his own dynasty. The Naraka king mentioned at various places in Kalika Purana,
Mahabharata and
Ramayana covering a wide period of time were probably different rulers from the same dynasty.
Kalika Purana, a Sanskrit text compiled in Assam in the 9th and 10th century, mentions that the last of the Naraka-bhauma rulers, Narak, was slain by
Krishna. His son Bhagadatta, mentioned in the Mahabharata, fought for the
Kauravas in the battle of Kurushetra with an army of ''kiratas'', ''chinas'' and ''dwellers of the eastern coast''. Later rulers of
Kamarupa frequently drew their lineage from the Naraka rulers.
Ancient and medieval Assam
Ancient Assam was known as
Kamarupa and was ruled by many powerful dynasties. The
Varman dynasty (350-650AD) and the Xalostombho dynasty led Kamrupa as a strong ancient kingdom. During the rule of the greatest of the Varman kings, Bhaskarvarman (600-650AD), a contemporary of
Harshavardhana of Kanauj, the Chinese traveler
Xuan Zang visited the region and recorded his travels. Other dynasties that ruled the region belonged to the Indo-Tibetan groups, such as the
Kacharis and
Chutias.
Two later kingdoms left the biggest impact in the region. The
Ahoms, a
Tai group, ruled eastern Assam for nearly 600 years (1228-1826). The
Koch, a
Tibeto-Burmese, established their sovereignty in 1510 which later extended to western Assam and northern Bengal. The Koch kingdom later split into two. The western kingdom became a vassal of the
Moghuls whereas the eastern kingdom became an Ahom satellite state.
Despite numerous invasions from the west, mostly by Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British. The most successful invader was
Mir Jumla, a governor of
Aurangzeb, who briefly occupied
Garhgaon the then capital of the Ahoms (1662-1663). But he found it difficult to control the people, who made
guerrilla attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave the region. Attempt by the Moghuls under the command of Raja Ram Singh resulted in victory for the Ahoms at
Saraighat (1671) under the Ahom general
Lachit Borphukan.
British Assam
Ahom palace intrigue, and political turmoil due to the
Moamoria rebellion, aided the expansionist Burmese ruler of Ava to invade Assam and install a
puppet king in 1821. With the Burmese having reached the doorsteps of the
East India Company's borders, the
First Anglo-Burmese War ensued, in which Assam was one of the sectors. The war ended with the
Treaty of Yandaboo[19] in 1826, which saw the East India Company take control of the Lower Assam and install Purander Singh as king of an independent Upper Assam in 1833. This arrangement only lasted until 1838 when the British annexed most of independent Assam, annexing the remainder the following year.
Under British administration, Assam was made a part of the British Indian province called the
Bengal Presidency with its capital at
Calcutta. Sometime about 1905-1912, Assam was separated and with parts of
Bengal, a separate province of
Eastern Bengal and Assam was established, with
Dhaka as the capital.
At the time of independence of India, it consisted of the original Ahom kingdom, the present-day Arunachal Pradesh (
North East Frontier Agency),
Naga Hills, original Kachari kingdom,
Lushai Hills, and
Garo,
Khasi and
Jaintia Hills. Of the Assam province on the eve of Independence,
Sylhet chose to join Pakistan in a referendum; and the two princely states Manipur and Tripura became Group C provinces. The capital was
Shillong.
Post British period
In the Post British period since 1947, unfortunately economic indexes of the region, which were above average before independence, began to fall compared to the rest of the country. Separatist and militant groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the new states of
Nagaland,
Meghalaya and
Mizoram in the 1960s and 1970s. The capital of Assam, which was in
Shillong in present Meghalaya, had to be moved to
Dispur, now a part of an expanding
Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962,
Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.
At the turn of the last century (1900s), people from present-day Bangladesh migrated to Assam. The British tea planters imported labour from central India to work in the estates adding to the demographic canvas. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed legislation making the use of Assamese language compulsory. The legislation resulted in widespread protest in Barak Valley, particularly by the Bengali speaking majority. Coming under intense pressure, the Government withdrew the legislation.
In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year
Assam Agitation [20] that began
non-violently but became increasingly violent. The movement was triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. The movement tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners who, the natives maintained, are illegally inundating the land from neighbouring
Bangladesh and changing the demographics, gradually pushing the indigenous Assamese into a minority. The agitation ended after an accord between its leaders and the Union Government. Most of the accord remains unimplemented, causing simmering discontent. However, political parties have increasingly used the Bangladeshi card as a vote bank rather than addressing the concerns of the Assamese populace. Former Governor of Assam (Retd) Lt Gen. S. K. Sinha reported explicitly on the burning problem in his report to the Government of India.
[21]
Like
indigenous peoples in other parts of the world, the many ethnic groups of this region struggle to maintain their cultural heritage resulting into active autonomy movements in the
Bodo and
Karbi dominated regions in the 1980s and 1990s. At the same time, added by economic stagnation, high aspirations for development and failure of public policies in the region in almost all the fronts, the period experienced the growth of armed secessionist groups like
United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA)
[20] and
National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army to control the situation, leading to claims of
human rights violations. The Indian army deployment has now been institutionalised under a "Unified Command". The low-intensity military conflict has been continuing for more than a decade now without an end to the insurgency at sight. In recent times, ethnicity based militant groups have also mushroomed (UPDS, DHD, KLO, HPCD etc.) leading to violent inter-ethnic conflicts (e.g. the Hmar-Dimasa conflict).
History of Assam Tea
Main articles: Assam Tea
This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam.
The East India Company began setting up
poppy plantations in Lower Assam for the
Opium trade to
China. This changed with the confirmed discovery in 1834 of
Camellia sinensis, tea plants, growing in the wild in Assam. The first chests containing leaves of wild tea were sent to Britain at the end of 1836. Botanical expeditions proved Upper Assam to be a more favourable area for tea plants than Lower Assam. British companies were allowed to rent land in Assam from 1839. Profitability for tea growers remained elusive and the first and largest actor,
The Assam Company, didn't pay dividends on its stocks until 1853.
The various stages in growing and making tea were learnt through a lengthy trial and error process. Imported Chinese labour proved invaluable in spreading knowledge about every step in growing and processing tea. Early tea plantations were also hindered by the hostility of native Assamese and as a result the British recruited labour from other parts of India. The native jungle was unhealthy for non-natives and had to be cleared for the plantations. The British also persisted for decades in trying to grow the Chinese tea variety (which they thought of as proper tea) or a Chinese-Assamese hybrid, before accepting that the native tea variety
Camellia assamica was more suitable for local agriculture and also tasted just as well if not better.
Assam Tea in English Stores
The first tea boom took off in 1861 when investors were allowed to own land in Assam. The British had hoped to undercut the Chinese tea trade by eliminating the middlemen and through more efficient production but found this difficult due to extremely low Chinese labour costs. The second boom began when
William Jackson invented the first efficient mechanical
tea roller in the early 1870s. He formed an association with
Britannia Iron Works and out of it grew
Messrs Marshall Sons & Co., Ltd which for a long time dominated the tea machinery manufacturing business. Further important inventions by William Jackson led to a thorough mechanization of the tea industry in Assam. The cost of a finished tea product went down from 11d per pound of tea in 1872 to a mere 3 shillings a pound in 1913. While India's tea exports to Britain soared to 220 million lbs in 1899, Chinese trade with Britain collapsed to 16 million lbs. Nowadays the only step that still requires considerable manual labour is the plucking of the delicate tea leaves.
Despite outmaneuvring the Chinese, Indian tea labour remained exploited and working under poor conditions. In face of greater government interference the tea growers formed
The Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby for the continued status quo. The organisation was very successful in this, and even after India's independence conditions have only slowly improved.
[23]
Administrative divisions
Districts of Assam:1.
Tinsukia, 2.
Dibrugarh, 3.
Sibsagar, 4.
Dhemaji, 5.
Jorhat, 6.
Lakhimpur, 7.
Golaghat, 8.
Sonitpur, 9.
Karbi Anglong, 10.
Nagaon, 11.
Marigaon, 12.
Darrang, 13.
Kamrup Rural, 14.
Nalbari, 15.
Barpeta, 16.
Bongaigaon, 17.
Goalpara, 18.
Kokrajhar, 19.
Dhubri, 20.
North Cachar Hills, 21.
Cachar, 22.
Hailakandi, 23.
Karimganj, 24.
Kamrup Metropolitan, 25. Baksa, 26.
Chirang and 27.
Udalguri.
Assam is divided into 27 administrative
districts.
[24] More than half of these districts were carved out during 80s and 90s from original 1. Lakhimpur, 2. Jorhat, 3. Karbi Anglong, 4. Darrang, 5. Nagaon, 6. Kamrup, 7. Goalpara, 8. North Cachar and 9. Cachar districts, delineated by the
British. Earlier, during 70s, Dibrugarh was separated out from original Lakhimpur district.
These districts are further sub-divided into 49 'Sub-divisions' or
''Mohkuma''.
[24] Every district is administered from a district head quarter with the office of the
District Collector,
District Magistrate, Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a
district court.
The districts are delineated on the basis of the features such as the rivers, hills, forests, etc and majority of the newly constituted districts are sub-divisions of the earlier districts. For the present districts of Assam and their location, refer the attached map.
The
local governance system is organised under the ''jila-parishad'' (District Panchayat) for a district,
''panchayat'' for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. Presently there are 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.
[26] The 'town-committee' or ''nagar-xomiti'' for small towns, 'municipal board' or ''pouro-xobha'' for medium towns and
municipal corporation or ''pouro-nigom'' for the cities consist of the urban local bodies.
For the revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and ''mouza''s; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or ''thana''.
[26]
Demographics
Main articles: People of Assam
District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001
As per the
Census of India 2001, total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households.
[28] Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darang and Cachar. The Technical Group on Population Projection constituted by the National Commission on Population (India) in 2006 has estimated Assam's population at 28.67 million in 2006 and has estimated it to be 30.57 million by 2011, 34.18 million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026.
[29]
In 2001, the census recorded
literacy in Assam at 63.30 percent with male literacy at 71.30 and female at 54.60 percents.
Urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.90 percent.
[30]
Growth of population in Assam has experienced a very high trajectory since the mid-decades of the 20th century. Population grew steadily from 3.29 million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941, while during the later decades it has increased unprecedentedly to 14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991 to reach the present level.
[28] Particularly, the growth in the western and southern districts of Assam was of extreme high in nature. This is mostly attributable to the rapid infiltration of population from the then
East Bengal (
East Pakistan) or
Bangladesh.
[32][21]
Population Growth Trend 1901 to 2001
Assam has very many ethnic communities. The
People of India project (POI) has studied 115 communities. Of these, 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were
Austroasiatic.
[34] The
Tibeto-Burman speakers entered the region from the north, northeast and southeast at various times in the prehistorical and historical times. The
Indo-Aryan speakers entered from the
Gangetic plains in the west, again at various times in the past.
Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families:
Austroasiatic (5),
Sino-Tibetan (24) and
Indo-European (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of
bilingualism.
Assam has communities representing many different religions, but the major religion is
Hinduism (64.9%).
[35] Islam (30.9%) has the largest proportional population among all Indian states except
Jammu and Kashmir.
[35] Christians also make up 3.7% of the population.
[35] Other significant religions include
Animism (followed by many ethno-cultural groups),
Buddhism (by ethnic communities like the Khamti, Phake, Aito etc.) and
Sikhism has an estimated population of 22,915 (followed by communities in Borkhola, in
Nagaon).
Languages
Assamese and
Bodo are the major indigenous and official languages of the state while
Bengali holds official status in particular districts in the Barak Valley.
Traditionally Assamese was the language of the commons (of mixed origin - Bodo, Khasi,
Sanskrit,
Magadhan Prakrit) of the ancient kingdoms such as Kamrupa and medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, Kachari, Cuteeya, Borahi, Ahom and Koch. Traces of the language can be found in many poems in
Charyapada written by Luipa, Sarahapa, etc during the period of the Xalostombho / Salastambha dynasty (7th/8th century AD) of
Kamarupa Kingdom. Modern Kamrupi dialect is the remnant of this language. Moreover, Assamese in its ancient and medieval form was used by almost every ethno-cultural group as the lingua-franca of the region. Probably the language was then required for needed economic integration and was also probably spread through the stronger and larger politico-economic systems such as that of the ancient Kamrupa. Traditional and localised forms of this language still exist in
Nagaland,
Arunachal Pradesh,
North Bengal, Kacar (Cachar) and in Southern Assam (similarities with
Chittagonian language in present-day Bangladesh exists). The form used in the upper Assam was enriched by contributions from many eastern immigrations such as of those of Tai-Ahoms and others beginning from 13th century onwards.
Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form in practice near Xiwoxagor/
Sibsagar district. Assamese or Oxomeeya (as called in Assam) is a rich language due to its hybrid nature with its unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. Assamese literature is one of the richest. The constitution of India recognises it as a major language of Republic of India.
Bodo is the ancient language of Assam and is mother of majority of the present day languages and dialects within the state and also in surrounding areas. Looking at the spatial distribution patterns of related ethno-cultural groups and their cultural traits and also phenomenon such as of naming all the major rivers in the
North East Region with original Bodo words (e.g.
Dihing,
Dibru,
Dihong, D/
Tista,
Dikrai, etc) it is understood that it was the most important language in the North East India in the ancient times, where history yet haven't opened its gates. Bodo is presently spoken largely in the Lower Assam areas mostly under the areas of
Bodo Territorial Council. During past few decades (after years of neglect) it is fortunate that Bodo as a language is getting attention and much care is being taken for development of Bodo literature.
Assam is also rich with several native languages such as
Mishing,
Karbi,
Dimaca,
Rabha, Tiwa, etc of
Tibeto-Burman origin and are closely related to Bodo. There are also small groups of people in different part of Assam with languages such as
Tai-Phake,
Tai-Aiton,
Tai-Khamti, etc related to
Tai-group of languages of
Southern China and
South East Asia. The Tai-Ahom language (brought by
Sukaphaa and his followers) is now fortunately getting attentions for wide-spread research after centuries long care and preservation by the Bailungs (traditional priests), which is no more a spoken language for commons today. There are also small groups of people speaking
Manipuri,
Khasi,
Garo,
Hmar,
Kuki, etc in different parts of Assam.
In the past century migration of Bengalis to the medieval kingdom of Kacar (of Kocaries) in the
Barak Valley has led to their majority, prompting the government of Assam to include Bengali as the official language in the Barak Valley districts.
Tradition and culture
Main articles: Culture of Assam
Development of Hybrid Culture in Assam
is traditionally a
hybrid one, developed due to cultural assimilation of different ethno-cultural groups under various politico-economic systems in different periods of pre-history and history. The roots of the culture go back to almost two thousand years when the first cultural assimilation took place with
Austro-Asiatic and
Tibeto-Burman as the major components.
[38]
Thereafter, western
migrations such as those of various branches of
Mediterraneans,
Indo-scythians /Irano-scythians and
Nordics along with (or in the form of) the mixed northern Indians (the ancient cultural mix already present in
northern Indian states such as
Magadha) have enriched the aboriginal culture and under certain stronger politico-economic systems,
Sanskritisation and
Hinduisation intensified and became prominent.
[38] Such an assimilated culture therefore carries many elements of source cultures, of which exact roots are difficult to trace and are matter of research. However, in each of the elements of Assamese culture, i.e. language, traditional crafts, performing arts, festivity and beliefs either local elements or the local elements in a Hinduised / Sanskritised forms are always present.
[40]
The major milestones in evolution of Assamese culture are:
★ Assimilation under the great dynasties of
Pragjyotisha-Kamrupa for almost 700 years (
Varman dynasty for 300 years,
Mlechchha dynasty for 200 years and
Pala dynasty for another 200 years) in the first millennium AD.
[38]
★ Advent of
Ahom dynasty in the 13th century AD and establishment of the Ahom politico-eonomic system and cultural assimilation for next 600 years.
[38]
★ Assimilation under the
Koch Kingdom (15th-16th century AD) of western Assam and
Kachari Kingdom (12th-18th century AD) of central and southern Assam.
[38]
★
Vaishnava Movement led by
Srimanta Sankardeva (Xonkordeu) and its contribution and cultural changes.
Ôxôm Xahityô Xôbha (est. 1917), the foremost organisation for development of literature; its annual conventions are the major celebrations and workshops portraying literary and cultural development
With a strong base of tradition and history, the modern Assamese culture is greatly influenced by various events those took place in the British Assam and in the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American
Baptist Missionaries such as
Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and local pundits such as
Hemchandra Barua with the form available in the
Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor) District (the nerve centre of the Ahom politico-economic system). A renewed Sanskritisation was increasingly adopted for developing
Assamese language and grammar. A new wave of
Western and northern
Indian influence was apparent in the performing arts and literature.
Due to increasing efforts of standardisation in the 19th and 20th century, the localised forms present in different districts and also among the remaining source-cultures with the less-assimilated
ethno-cultural groups have seen greater alienation. However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest and is still under development.
Assamese culture in its true sense today is a
'cultural system' comprised of different sub-systems. It is more interesting to note that even many of the source-cultures of Assamese culture are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities. In broader sense, therefore, the Assamese cultural system incorporates its source-cultures such as
Bodo (Boro) or
Khasi or
Mishing (Micing) but individual development of these sub-systems are today becoming important. However, it is also important to keep the broader system closer to its roots.
Some of the common cultural traits available across these systems are:
★ Respect towards
areca-nut and
betel leaves
★ Respect towards particular symbolic cloth types such as
Gamosa, Arnai, etc
★ Respect towards
traditional silk and cotton garments
★ Respect towards forefathers and elderly
★ Great hospitality
★
Bamboo culture
Some of the major elements of Assamese cultural system are:
Symbolism
Symbolism is an important part of Assamese culture. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam, which is still very important for the people. ''Tamulpan'', ''
Xorai'' and ''
Gamosa'' are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture.
There were various other symbolic elements and designs traditionally in used, which are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc or used for only religious purposes (in particular occasions only). The typical designs of ''assamese-lion'', ''dragon'', ''flying-lion'', etc were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions.
Festivals
There are several important traditional festivals in Assam.
Bihu is the most important and common and celebrated all over Assam.
Bihu is a series of three prominent festivals of Assam. Primarily a festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over a yearly cycle, in recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centers. A non-religious festival, all communities---religious or ethnic---take part in it. Three Bihus are celebrated: ''rongali'', celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; ''kongali'', the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the ''bhogali'', the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Rongali, kongali & bhogali bihu are also known as 'bohag bihu', 'kati bihu' & 'magh bihu' respectively. The day before the each bihu is known as 'uruka'. There are unique features of each bihu. The first day of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows). On this day the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. Traditionally, cows are respected as sacred animals by the people of Assam. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to ''rongali'' bihu.
Bodo girls performing the Kherai dance.
Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year for different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Few of these are:
★ Me-dam-me-phi
★ Ali-aye-ligang
★ Kherai
★ Garja
★ Hapsa Hatarnai
★ Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai |
★ Chojun/Swarak
★ Rongker
★ Sokk-erroi
★ Hacha-kekan
★ Porag |
Music
Main articles: Music of Assam
Assam, being the home to many ethnic groups and different cultures, is very rich in folk music. The indigenous folk music has in turn influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of such artists like
Bhupen Hazarika,
Anima Choudhury Nirmalendu Choudhury & Utpalendu Choudhury,
Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah,
Parvati Prasad Baruva,
Jayanta Hazarika,
Khagen Mahanta among many others. Among the new generation,
Zubeen Garg, Debojit Saha and Jitul Sonowal have a great fan following.
Traditional crafts
Main articles: Traditional crafts of Assam
Assam has maintained a rich tradition of various traditional
crafts for more than two thousand years. Presently,
Cane and
bamboo craft,
bell metal and
brass craft,
silk and
cotton weaving,
toy and
mask making,
pottery and
terracotta work, wood craft,
jewellery making, musical instruments making, etc remained as major traditions.
[44] Historically, Assam also excelled in making
boats, traditional
guns and
gunpowder,
ivory crafts, colours and
paints, articles of
lac, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc.
Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments to building construction materials. Traditional utilities and symbolic articles made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.
[45][46] The Xorai and bota have been in use for centuries to offer gifts to respected persons and are two prominent symbolic elements.
Hajo and
Sarthebari / Xorthebaary are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of
silks, the most prominent and prestigious being Muga, the natural golden silk is exclusive only to Assam. Apart from Muga, there are other two varieties called Pat, a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri, a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from
Sualkuchi / Xualkuchi, the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the
Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.
Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of
toy and
mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries,
pottery and
terracotta work in lower Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft,
jewellery, etc in many places across the region.
Paintings
Main articles: Fine Arts of Assam
Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. The ancient practices can be known from the accounts of the Chinese traveller
Xuanzang (7th century CE). The account mentions that Bhaskaravarma, the king of
Kamarupa has gifted several items to Harshavardhana, the king of
Magadha including paintings and painted objects, some of which were on
Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts available from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings. The most famous of such medieval works are available in the
Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants), the
Chitra Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda. The medieval painters used locally manufactured painting materials such as the colours of
hangool and haital. The medieval
Assamese literature also refers to chitrakars and patuas. Traditional Assamese paintings have been influenced by the motifs and designs in the medieval works such as the Chitra Bhagawata.
There are several renowned contemporary painters in Assam. The
Guwahati Art College in
Guwahati is a government institution for tertiary education. Moreover, there are several art-societies and non-government initiatives across the state and the
Guwahati Artists Guild is a front-runner organisation based in Guwahati.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Assam
The per capita income of Assam was higher than the national average soon after Indian Independence. But it has slipped since, and the difference has become larger since liberalization of the Indian economy in the 1980s.
Macro-economic trend
Economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty.
[47] Growth rate of Assam’s
income has not kept pace with that of India’s during the Post-British Era; differences increased rapidly since 1970s.
[48] While the Indian economy grew at 6 percent per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000, the same of Assam’s grew only by 3.3 percent.
[49] In the Sixth Plan period Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78 percent against a growth rate of 6 percent of India’s.
[48] In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the gaps between growth rates of Assam’s and India’s economy widened further.
In the current decade, according to recent analysis, Assam’s economy is showing signs of improvement. In the year 2001-2002, the economy grew in 1993-94 constant prices at 4.5 percent, falling to 3.4 percent in the next financial year.
[51] During 2003-2004 and 2004-2005, in the same constant prices, the economy grew more satisfactorily at 5.5 and 5.3 percent respectively.
[51] The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for the year 2005-2006 at above 6 percent.
[53]
In the 1950s, soon after the independence,
per capita income in Assam was little higher than that in India; it is much lower today. In the year 2000-2001, per capita income in Assam was
INR 6,157 at constant prices (1993-94) and INR 10,198 at current prices, which is almost 40 percent lower than that in India.
[54] According to the recent estimates,
[53] per capita income in Assam at 1993-94 constant prices has reached INR 6520 in 2003-2004 and INR 6756 in 2004-2005, which is still much lower than the same of India.
This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Assam at market prices
estimated by ''Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation'' with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.
| Year | Gross State Domestic Product |
|---|
| 1980 | 25,160 |
| 1985 | 56,730 |
| 1990 | 106,210 |
| 1995 | 194,110 |
| 2000 | 314,760 |
Assam's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $13 billion in current prices.
Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was only 2.6 percent per annum over 1980s has unfortunately fallen to 1.6 percent in the 1990s.
[56] Manufacturing sector has shown some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4 percent per annum than 2.4 percent in the 1980s.
[56] Since past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates than the primary and secondary sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in 1980s.
[56]
Agriculture
A tea garden in Assam
Agriculture accounts for more than a third of Assam’s income and employs 69 percent of total workforce.
[59] Assam's biggest contribution to the world is its
tea. Assam produces some of the finest and most expensive teas in the world. Other than the Chinese tea variety ''
Camellia sinensis'', Assam is the only region in the world that has its own variety of tea, called ''
Camellia assamica''. Assam tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g.
Darjeeling,
Taiwanese) teas. Assam also accounts for fair share of India’s production of
rice,
rapeseed,
mustard,
jute,
potato,
sweet potato,
banana,
papaya,
areca nut and
turmeric. Assam is also a home of large varieties of
citrus fruits,
leaf vegetables,
vegetables, useful grasses,
herbs,
spices, etc, which are mostly subsistance crops.
Assam’s agriculture yet to experience modernisation in real sense and is lagged behind. With implications to food security, per capita food grain production has declined in past five decades.
[60] On the other hand, although productivity of crops increased marginally, still these are much lower in comparison to highly productive regions. For instance, yield of rice, which is staple food of Assam, was just 1531kg per hectare against India’s 1927kg per hectare in 2000-2001
[60] (which itself is much lower than
Egypt’s 9283,
USA’s 7279,
South Korea’s 6838,
Japan’s 6635 and
China’s 6131kg per hectare in 2001
[62]). On the other hand, although having a strong domestic demand, 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies and numerous rivers and streams and 165 varieties of fishes,
[63] fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.
[64]
Industry
Apart from tea and petroleum refineries, Assam has few industries of significance. Industrial development is inhibited by its physical and political isolation from neighbouring countries such as
Myanmar,
China and
Bangladesh and from the other growing
South East Asian economies. The region is landlocked and situated in the eastern most periphery of India and is linked to the mainland of India by a
flood and
cyclone prone narrow corridor with weak transportation infrastructure. The
international airport in Guwahati is yet to find airlines providing better direct international flights. The
Brahmaputra suitable for
navigation does not posses sufficient infrastructure for
international trade and success of such a navigable trade route will be dependent on proper channel maintenance, and diplomatic and trade relationships with Bangladesh.
Assam is a major producer of
crude oil and
natural gas in India. Assam is the second place in the world (after
Titusville in the
United States) where
petroleum was discovered. Asia’s first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum (Assam) way back in 1867. The second oldest oil well in the world still produces crude oil. Most of the oilfields of Assam are located in the Upper Assam region of the
Brahmaputra Valley. Assam has four oil refineries located at
Guwahati,
Digboi, Numaligarh and
Bongaigaon with a total capacity of 7 MMTPA (Million Metric Tonnes per annum). Bongaigaon Refinery and Petrochemicals is the only ''S&P CNX 500'' conglomerate with corporate office in Assam.
Although having a poor overall industrial performance, several other industries have nevertheless been started, including a chemical
fertiliser plan at
Namrup,
petrochemical industries at
Namrup and
Bongaigaon, paper mills at
Jagiroad, Panchgram and
Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plant at Bokajan, cosmatics plant (HLL) at
Doom Dooma, etc. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, silk mill, etc. Unfortunately many of these industries are facing loss and closer due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.
Places in Assam
A View of Guwahati; the city has a history of almost 2000 years
Major cities and towns
History of urban development goes back to almost two thousand years in the region. Existence of ancient urban areas such as Pragjyotishapura (Guwahati), Hatapesvara (Tezpur), Durjaya, etc and medieval towns such as Charaideu, Garhgaon, Rongpur, Jorhat, Khaspur, Guwahati, etc are well recorded.
[65]
Guwahati is the largest
urban centre and a million plus city in Assam. The city has experienced multifold growth during past three decades to grow as the
primate city in the region; the city's population was approximately 0.9 million (considering
GMDA area) during the census of 2001. The other important urban areas are
Dibrugarh,
Jorhat,
Tinsukia (Tinicukiya),
Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor),
Silchar (Silcor),
Tezpur,
Nagaon,
Lakhimpur,
Bongaigaon, etc. Population growth in the Barak Valley town of Silchar is also astonishing during past two decades.
Nalbari,
Mangaldoi,
Barpeta,
Kokrajhar,
Goalpara,
Dhubri (Dhubury), etc are other towns and district head quarters. On the other hand
Duliajan,
Digboi,
Namrup,
Moran,
Bongaigaon,
Numaligarh,
Jogighopa, etc are major industrial towns. Currently, there are around 125 total urban centres in the state.
Attractive destinations
Orchids are abundantly found in Assam; a variety - Bhatou Phul or
Vanda coerulea, the 'Blue Orchid''
Assam has several attractive destinations; majority of these are
National Parks, Wildlife and Bird Sanctuaries,
[66] areas with archaeological interests and areas with unique
cultural heritage. Moreover, as a whole, the region is covered by beautiful natural landscapes.
★ Kaziranga National Park
★ Manas National Park
★ Nameri National Park
★ Dibru-Saikhuwa National Park
★ Orang National Park
★ Joydihing Rainforest
★ Gobbon Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Chakrasila Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Buracapori Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Bornodi Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Sonai-rupai Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Nambar Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary
★ East Karbi-Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary (Proposed)
★ Karbi-Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary (Proposed)
★ Podumani Bherjan Borajan Wildlife Sanctuary
★ Bordoibum Beelmukh Bird Sanctuary (Proposed)
★ Panidihing Bird Sanctuary
★ Deepor Beel Bird Sanctuary |
★ Majuli
★ Sualkuchi
★ Sarthebari
★ Digboi oil town
★ Ledo and Stilwell Road
★ Haflong and Jatinga
★ Umrangshu hotwater spring |
★ Guwahati archaeological region
★ Hajo archaeological region
★ Madan Kamdev
★ Sibsagar archaeological region
★ Charaideo
★ Surya Pahar Goalpara archaeological region
★ Tezpur archaeological region
★ Kapili Valley archaeological region
★ Dhansiri/Dhonxiri Valley archaeological region
★ Maibong |
See also
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