(Redirected from Asha Vahishta)
'Asha' (''aša'') or 'arta' is the
Avestan language term for a concept of "cardinal importance"
[1] to
Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. In the moral sphere, ''aša/arta'' represents what has been called "the decisive confessional concept of Zoroastrianism."
[2]
The significance of the term is complex, with a highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right(eousness)', 'order' and 'right working'.
[3][4] For other connotations, see
meaning below.
The Avestan language word may be transliterated as either ''arta'' or ''aša/asha''. (see
transliteration, below). Its
Old Persian equivalent is ''arta-''. In
Middle Iranian languages the term appears as ''ard-''.
The word is also the proper name of the divinity 'Asha', the
Amesha Spenta that is the hypostasis or "genius"
[5] of "Truth" or "Righteousness". In the Younger
Avesta, this figure is more commonly referred to as 'Asha Vahishta' (or Aša Vahišta or Arta Vahišta), "Best Truth". The
Middle Persian descendant is ''Ashawahist'' or ''Ardwahisht'';
New Persian ''Ardibehesht'' or ''Ordibehesht''. In the
Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and thought to have been composed by the prophet himself, it is seldom possible to distinguish between moral principle and the divinity. Later texts consistently use the 'Best' epithet when speaking of the Amesha Spenta, only once in the Gathas is 'best' an adjective of ''aša-/arta''.
Transliteration
The word may be transliterated as either ''aša'' (''asha'') or as ''arta''. This is because Indo-Iranian ''
★ -rt-'' is inconsistently rendered in
Avestan: sometimes with /Ř/ (written ''š'') and sometimes with ''rt''.
Benveniste suggested ''š'' was only a convenient way of writing ''rt'' and should not be considered phonetically relevant.
[6] According to Gray, ''š'' is a misreading, representing – not /Ř/ - but /r r/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing a
voiceless ''r''.
[7] Miller suggested that ''rt'' was restored when a scribe was aware of the
morpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/ (that is, whether the writer maintained the ''–ta'' suffix).
[8]
Etymology
Avestan ''aša/arta'' derives from
Indo-Iranian ''
★ ṛtá-'', a neuter noun with the same meaning. The word is attested in
Old Persian as ''ạrta'' and in
Old Indic as ''
ṛtá-''.
The etymology may be traced back further:
Indo-Iranian ''
★ ṛtá-'' is the past participle passive of the
Indo-European root ''
★ ár-'' "to (properly) join together." Substantivized with ''–ta'', ''
★ ṛtá-'' then means "in a correct joint," a connotation that is (also) preserved in both Avestan and Rigvedic sources as a notion of properly connected thoughts and words.
Reconstructed ''
★ árta'' derives from
Proto-Indo-European ''
★ '' "properly joined, right, true", from the root ''
★ '' also found in ''
★
''.
Meaning
Summarized
The term "cannot be precisely rendered by some single word in another tongue"
[3] but may be summarized as follows:
It is, first of all, 'true statement'. This 'true statement' - because it is true - corresponds to an objective, material reality. This reality embraces all of existence. Recognized in it is a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it.
[10]
"This cosmic [...] force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, 'la parole conforme', and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order."
[11]
The correspondence between 'truth', reality, and an all-encompassing cosmic principle is not far removed from
Heraclitus' conception of
Logos.
[12]
As "truth"
Both Avestan ''aša/arta'' and Vedic ''ŗtá-'' are commonly translated as "truth" as this best reflects both the original meaning of the term as well as the opposition to their respective antonyms. The opposite of Avestan ''aša/arta'' is ''druj-'', "lie." Similarly, the opposites of Vedic ''ŗtá-'' are ''ánŗta-'' and ''druh'', likewise "lie".
That "truth" is also what was commonly understood by the term is attested in Greek: In ''Isis and Osiris'' 47,
Plutarch calls the divinity ''Αλήθεια'' 'Aletheia', "Truth."
[13]
As "existence"
The adjective corresponding to the noun ''aša/arta'', "truth", is Avestan ''haithya-'' (''haiθiia-''), "true", the opposite of which is also ''druj-''. Avestan ''haithya-'' derives from Indo-Iranian ''
★ sātya'' that in turn derives from Indo-European ''
★ sat-'' "being, existing". The Sanskrit cognate ''sátya-'' means "true" in the sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expression ''haiθīm var''ə''z'', "to make true" as in "to bring to realization."
[14]
Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of the ''aša/arta'', that is, from (root) ''ŗ'' with a
substantivizing ''-ta'' suffix. The root ''ŗ'' corresponds to Old Avestan ''ar''ə''ta-'' and Younger Avestan ə''r''ə''ta-'' "established", hence ''aša/arta'' "that which is established."
[6]
The synonymity of ''aša'' and "existence" overlaps with the stock identification of Ahura Mazda as the Creator (i.e. of Existence itself). Truth is existence (creation) inasmuch as falsehood is non-existence (uncreated, anti-created). And, because ''aša'' is everything that ''druj-'' is not (or vice-versa), since ''aša'' is, ''druj-'' is not. For details, see
Angra Mainyu: In Zoroastrian tradition.
This notion is already expressed in the Avesta itself, for instance in the first ''Yasht'', dedicated to Ahura Mazda, where the "fifth name is the whole good existence of Mazda, the seed of Asha" ( ''Yasht'' 1.7). Similarly, in the mythology of ''Gandar''ə''βa'', the 'yellow-heeled' dragon of the ''druj-'' that emerges from the deep to destroy the "living world (creation) of Aša" (''Yasht'' 19.41)
In the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism ("good thoughts, good words, good deeds"), Vohu Manah is active in good thoughts, Sraosha in good words and Aša in good deeds. (''Denkard'' 3.13-14). Aša is thus "represented as active and effective."
[16]
As "right working"
Subject to context, ''aša/arta-'' is also frequently translated as "right working" or "[that which is] right". The word then (''cf.'' Bartholomae's
[17] and
Geldner's[18] translations as German language "''Recht''") has the same range of meaning of "right" as in the English language: truth, righteousness, rightfulness, lawfullness, conformity, accord, order (cosmic order, social order, moral order).
These various meanings of "right" are frequently combined, for instance as "the inexorable law of righteousness,"
[19] or as "the eternal fitness of things that are in accord with the divine order."
[20]
As (the hypostasis of) regularity and "right working", ''aša/arta-'' is present when Ahura Mazda fixed the course of the sun, the moon and the stars (''Yasna'' 44.3), and it is through ''aša'' that plants grow (''Yasna'' 48.6).
"Right working" also overlaps with both Indo-European ''
★ ár-'' "to (properly) join together" and also with the notion of existence and realization (to make real). The word for "established", ''ar''ə''ta-'', also means "proper". The antonymic ''anar''ə''ta-'' (or ''anar''ə''θa-'') means "improper."
[21] In Zoroastrian tradition, prayers must be enunciated with care for them to be effective. The Indo-Iranian formula ''
★ sātyas mantras'' (''Yasna'' 31.6: ''haiθīm mathrem'') "does not simply mean 'true Word' but formulated thought which is in conformity with the reality' or 'poetic (religious) formula with inherent fulfillment (realization).'"
[22]
In comparison to Vedic usage
The kinship
[23] between Old Iranian ''aša-/arta-'' and Vedic ''ŗtá-'' is evident in numerous formulaic phrases and expressions that appear in both the
Avesta and in the
RigVeda.
[24] For instance, the ''
★ ŗtásya path-'', "path of truth", is attested multiple times in both sources. (e.g. Y 51.13, 72.11; RV 3.12.7, 7.66.3). Similarly "source of truth," Avestan ''aša khá'' and Vedic ''khâm ṛtásya'' (Y 10.4; RV 2.28.5)
The adjective corresponding to Avestan ''aša/arta-'' "truth" is ''haiθiia-'' "true". Similarly, the adjective corresponding to Vedic ''ŗtá-'' "truth" is ''sátya-'' "true". The opposite of both ''aša/arta-'' and ''haithya-'' is ''druj-'' "lie" or "false". In contrast, in the Vedas the opposite of both ''ŗtá-'' and ''sátya-'' is ''druj-'' and ''ánŗta-'', also "lie" or "false".
However, while the Indo-Iranian concept of truth is attested throughout Zoroastrian tradition, ''ŗtá-'' disappears in post-Vedic literature and is not preserved in post-Vedic texts. On the other hand, ''sátya-'' and ''ánrta-'' both survive in classical Sanskrit.
The main theme of the Rig Veda - "the truth and the gods" - is not evident in the Gathas.
[25] Thematic parallels between ''aša/arta'' and ''ŗtá-'' do however exist, for instance in ''Yasht'' 10, the Avestan hymn to
Mithra: there, Mithra, who is the hypostasis and preserver of covenant, is the protector of ''aša/arta''.
[26] RigVedic
Mitra is likewise preserver of ''ŗtá-''.
Fire as the agent of Truth
Fire is the physical creation that is the domain of Aša and in which the Amesha Spenta of "Best Truth" (Asha Vahishta) is immanent. Fire is "grandly conceived as a force informing all the ''other'' [Amesha Spentas], giving them warmth and the spark of life."
[27]
In ''Yasht'' 17.20,
Angra Mainyu clamours that Zoroaster burns him with Asha Vahishta. In ''Vendidad'' 4.54-55, speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is detected by the consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt."
This analogy of truth that burns and detecting truth through fire is already attested in the very earliest texts, that is, in the Gathas and in the ''
Yasna Haptanghaiti''. In ''Yasna'' 43-44, Ahura Mazda dispenses justice through radiance of His fire and the strength of aša. Fire "detects" sinners "by hand-grasping" (''Yasna'' 34.4). An individual who has passed the fiery test (''garmo-varah'',
ordeal by heat), has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity (''Yasna'' 30.7). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all."
[28] According to the post-Sassanid ''Dadestan i denig'' (I.31.10), at the final judgement a river of molten metal will cover the earth. The righteous, as they wade through this river, will perceive the molten metal as a bath of warm milk. The wicked will be scorched. For details on aša's role in personal and final judgement, see
''aša'' in eschatology, below.
Fire is moreover the "auxilliary of the truth," "and not only, as in the ordeal, of justice and of truth at the same time."
[10] In ''Yasna'' 31.19, "the man who thinks of ''aša'', [...] who uses his tongue in order to speak correctly, [does so] with the aid of brilliant fire". In ''Yasna'' 34-44 devotees "ardently desire [Mazda's] mighty fire, through aša." In ''Yasna'' 43-44, Ahura Mazda "shall come to [Zoroaster] through the splendour of [Mazda's] fire, possessing the strength of (through) aša and good mind (=Vohu Manah)." That fire "possesses strength through ''aša''" is repeated again in ''Yasna'' 43.4. In ''Yasna'' 43.9, Zoroaster, wishing to serve fire, gives his attention to ''aša''. In ''Yasna'' 37.1, in a list of what are otherwise all physical creations, ''aša'' takes the place of fire.
Asha Vahishta's association with ''atar'' is carried forward in the post-Gathic texts, and they are often mentioned together. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, each of the Amesha Spentas represents one aspect of creation and one of seven primordial elements that in Zoroastrian tradition are the basis of that creation. In this matrix, ''aša/arta'' is the origin of fire, Avestan ''
atar'', which permeates through all Creation. The correspondence then is that ''aša/arta'' "penetrates all ethical life, as fire penetrates all physical being."
[11]
In the liturgy Asha Vahishta is frequently invoked together with fire. (''Yasna'' l.4, 2.4, 3.6, 4.9, 6.3, 7.6, 17.3, 22.6, 59.3, 62.3 etc). In one passage, fire is a protector of ''aša'': "when the Evil Spirit assailed the creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" (''Yasht'' 13.77)
In later Zoroastrian tradition, Asha Vahishta is still at times identified with the fire of the household hearth.
[31]
In eschatology and soteriology
In addition to the role of fire
as the agent of Truth, fire - among its various other manifestations - is also "the fire of judicial ordeal, prototype of the fiery torrent of judgement day, when all will receive their just deserts 'by fire and by Aša' (''Y'' 31.3)"
[27]
In the Avesta, the "radiant quarters" of ''aša'' is "the best existence", i.e. Paradise (cf. ''Vendidad'' 19.36), entry to which is restricted to those who are recognized as "possessing truth" (''
ašavan'').
[33] The key to this doctrine is ''Yasna'' 16.7: "We worship the radiant quarters of ''Aša'' in which dwell the souls of the dead, the
Fravašis of the ''ašavan''s; the best existence (=Paradise) of the ''ašavan''s we worship, (which is) light and according all comforts."
[33]
'Aša' derives from the same Proto-Indo-European root as '
Airyaman', the divinity of healing who is closely associated with Asha Vahishta. At the last judgement, the common noun ''airyaman'' is an epithet of the ''
saoshyans'', the saviours that bring about the final renovation of the world. The standing epithet of these saviour figures is
'''astvat''ә''r''ә''ta''
', which likewise has ''arta'' as an element of the name.
[21] These saviours are those who follow Ahura Mazda's teaching "with acts inspired by aša" (''Yasna'' 48.12). Both Airyaman and Asha Vahishta (as also Atar) are closely associated with
Sraosha "[Voice of] Conscience" and guardian of the
Chinvat bridge across which souls must pass.
According to a lost Avestan passage that is only preserved in a later (9th century) Pahlavi text, towards the end of time and the final renovation, Aša and Airyaman will together come upon the earth to do battle with the Az, the demon of greed (''Zatspram'' 34.38-39).
The third ''Yasht'', which is nominally addressed to Asha Vahishta, is in fact mostly devoted to the praise of the ''
airyaman ishya'' (''airy''ә''mā īšyo'', "Longed-for ''airyaman''"), the fourth of the four great Gathic prayers. In present-day Zoroastrianism it is considered to invoke Airyaman just as the ''Ashem Vohu'', is the second of the four great Gathic prayers, is dedicated to Aša. All four prayers (the first is the
Ahuna Vairya, the third is the Yenghe Hatam) have judgement and/or salvation as a theme, and all four call on the Truth.
It is Airyaman that – together with fire – will "melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and it will be upon the earth like a river" (''Bundahishn'' 34.18). In Zoroastrian tradition, metal is the domain of Xshathra [Vairya], the Amesha Spenta of "[Desirable] Dominion", with whom Aša is again frequently identified. Dominion is moreover "a form of truth and results from truth."
[36]
In ''Denkard'' 8.37.13, Asha Vahishta actually takes over Airyaman's healer role as the healer of all spiritual ills and Airyaman then only retains the role of healer of corporeal ills. Although Airyaman has no dedication in the Siroza, the invocations to the divinities of the
Zoroastrian calendar, Airyaman is twice invoked together with Aša. (''Siroza'' 1.3 and 2.3)
''Aogemadaecha'' 41-47 prototypes death as a journey that has to be properly prepared for: As mortals acquires material goods as they go through life, so also should they furnish themselves with spiritual stores of righteousness. They will then be well provisioned when they embark on the journey from which they will not return.
Aša's role is not limited to judgement: In ''Bundahishn'' 26.35, Aša prevents demons from exacting too great a punishment to souls consigned to hell. Here, Aša occupies the position that other texts assign to
Mithra, who is traditionally identified with fairness.
For the relationship between Aša, eschatology and
Nowruz, see
in the Zoroastrian calendar, below.
Although there are numerous eschatological parallels between Aša and
Aši "recompense, reward" (most notably their respective associations with Sraosha and Vohu Manah), and are on occasion even mentioned together (''Yasna'' 51.10), the two are not etymologically related. The feminine abstract noun ''aši/arti'' derives from ''ar-'', "to allot, to grant." Aši also has no Vedic equivalent.
In relationship to the other Amesha Spentas
In Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology, which - though alluded to in the Gathas – is only systematically described in Zoroastrian tradition (e.g. ''Bundahishn'' 3.12), ''aša'' is the second (cf. ''Yasna'' 47.1) of the six primeval creations realized ("created by His thought") by Ahura Mazda. It is through these six, the
Amesha Spentas that all subsequent creation was accomplished.
In addition to Asha Vahishta's role as an Amesha Spenta and hence one of the primordial creations through which all other creation was realized, Truth is one of the "organs, aspects or emanations" of Ahura Mazda through which the Creator acts and is immanent in the world.
[37]
Although Vohu Manah regularly stands first in the list of the Amesha Spenta (and of Ahura Mazda's creations), in the Gathas Asha Vahishta is the most evident of the six, and also the most commonly associated with Wisdom (Mazda). In the 238 verses of these hymns, Aša appears 157 times. Of the other concepts, only ''
Vohu Manah'' "Good Purpose" appears nearly as often (136 occurrences). In comparison, the remaining four of the great sextet appear only 121 times altogether.
Although a formal hierarchy is not evident in the Gathas, the group of six "divides naturally into three dyads."
[27] In this arrangement, Aša is paired with Vohu Manah. This reflects the frequency in which the two appear (together) in the Gathas and is in turn reflected in Zoroastrian tradition. In ''Bundahishn'' 26.8, Vohu Manah stands at the left hand of God, while Aša stands at the right.
In divine epithets
Of Ahura Mazda
Yasht 1, the hymn dedicated to Ahura Mazda, provides a list of 74 "names" by which the Creator is invoked. In the numbered list of ''Yasht'' 1.7, 'Asha Vahishta' "Best Truth" is the fourth name.
[39] A later verse, ''Yasht'' 1.12, includes 'Ašavan'
[40] "Possessing Truth" and 'Ašavastəma' "Most Righteous".
[41] In ''Yasna'' 40.3, Ahura Mazda is ''ašaŋāč'' "having ''aša'' following".
[40]
Of other divinities
One of
Haoma's stock epithets is ''ašavazah-'' "furthering ''aša''" (''Yasht'' 20.3; ''Yasna'' 8.9, 10.1.14, 11.10 et al).
Atar "possesses strength through ''aša''" (''aša-ahojah'', Yasna 43.4).
In the Zoroastrian calendar
In the Zoroastrian calendar, the third day of the month and the second month of the year are dedicated to and named after ''aša'' (and Asha Vahishta).
A special service to ''aša'' and Aša, known as the '
''Jashan'' of Ardavisht', is held on the day on which month-name and day-name dedications intersect. In the ''Fasli'' and ''Bastani'' variants of the
Zoroastrian calendar, this falls on April 22nd.
Rapithwin, one of the five ''gah''s (watches) of the day, under the protection of Aša. (''Bundahishn'' 3.22) This implies that all prayers recited between noon and three invoke Aša. Noon is considered to be the "perfect" time, at which instant the world was created and at which instant time will stop on the day of the final renovation of the world.
In the winter months, the
''daev''ic time of year, Rapithwin is known as the ''Second Havan'' (the first Havan being from dawn to noon), and with the first day of spring, March 21st, Rapithwin symbolically returns. This day, March 21st, is
Nowruz.
Nowruz, the holiest of all
Zoroastrian festivals is dedicated to Aša. It follows immediately after Pateti, the day of introspection and the Zoroastrian equivalent of All-Souls Day. Nowruz, Zoroastrianism's New Year's Day, is celebrated on the first day of spring, traditionally understood to be the day of rebirth, and literally translated means "New Day". The first month of the year of the Zoroastrian calendar is Farvadin, which is dedicated to and named after the
Fravašis, the guardian spirits.
Iconography
On
Kushan coins, Asha Vahishta "appears as Ašaeixšo, with a diadem and nimbus, like Mithra in the same series."
[16]
In proper names
"''Arta-'' (Mid. Iranian ''ard-''), representing either the Av. divinity Aša or the principle ''aša'', occurs frequently as an element in Iranian personal names."
[16]
Hellenized/Latinized names include:
★ Artabanos (Greek, Latin
Artabanus), from
★ Artabānu "glory of ''arta''".
★ Artabazanes (Latin) a variant of either Artabazus or Artabrzana
★ Artabazus, Artabazos (Greek, Latin
Artavasdes), attested as Avestan Ashavazdah, perhaps meaning "powerful/persevering through ''arta''"
★ Artabrzana (Greek), from
★ Artabrzana "exalting ''arta''"
★
Artaphrenes (Greek), either from Artamainyu "spirit of ''arta''" (''phrene'': Greek 'spirit') or a corruption of Artafarnah "[divine] Glory of ''arta''"
★ Artasyras (Greek), from
★ Artasura, "powerful through ''arta''"
★
Artaxata, Artaxiasata (Greek, Armenian Artashat), meaning "joy of ''arta''".
★
Artaxias (Greek, Armenian Artashes), from an Aramaic form of Artaxšacā (Artaxerxes, see below).
★
Artaxerxes (Latin, variant Artoxerxes, Greek Artaxesses), a compound of Arta and Xerxes, the latter not being a part of the original Old Persian Artaxšacā, "whose reign is through ''arta''" or "dominion of ''arta''."
★
Artazostre (Greek), from
★ Artazaushri "who is in favor of ''arta''" or "who takes delight in ''arta''"
★ Artembares (Greek), from
★ Artempara "who encourages ''arta''" or "who furthers ''arta''."
Other names include:
★ Artavardiya (Old Persian) and Irdumardiya (Elamite), meaning "doer of Justice"
★
Arda Viraz, the "righteous Viraz" (having an eschatological connotation)
★
Ardashir, Middle Persian form of Old Persian Artaxšacā (i.e. Artaxerxes), "whose reign is through Truth"
Middle Iranian ''ard-'' is also said to be the root of the name of the city of
Ardabil.
Notes
| a) | | Middle Iranian ''ard-'' denoting ''aša-/arta-'' should not be confused with another ''ard-'', denoting "fortune." The latter derives from Avestan ''aši-'' or ''arti-'', which has a different gender. |
| b) | | Avestan ''vahišta'' (as in ''Asha Vahishta'') is a superlative of the adjective ''vohu-'' "good", hence "vahišta" "best". As a noun however, "vohu-" means "possession". |
| c) | | Aside from its use in proper names, Old Persian ''ạrta'' is only attested in one source,[45] Xerxes' "''daiva'' inscription" (XPh). In this one text, the word appears in two forms: One form is as adjectival ''ạrtavan-'', which corresponds[46] to Avestan ''ašavan-''. The other form is in a thrice-repeated phrase ''ạrtācā brazmaniya'', the reading/meaning of which is not conclusively established. For a review of various interpretations, see Kent, 1945[47] and Skjærvø, 1987.[45] |
| d) | | This meaning of ''ašavan'' was not considered in some translations of other texts, leading to the assumption that the Avesta did not preserve all nuances of Indo-Iranian ''
★ ŗtávan''. |
| e) | | The doctrinal basis for this extention of meaning is uncertain, but is "probably"[49] due to the polar opposition of ''ašavan'' to ''dr''ə''gvant'' "liar" (YAv. ''drvant''). It could then also be a continuation of the principle that ''ašavan'' is not only an intrinsic property of divinities, but also applies to everything that pertains to the domain of Ahura Mazda and/or Aša, and thus everything that is not ''dr''ə''gvant''/''drvant''. |
| f) | | ''Aša'' appears as "holy" in Darmesteter's 1883 translation of ''Yasht'' 1 (in SBE 23). |
| g) | | ''Saoshyant'' may have been a term originally applied to Zoroaster himself (e.g. ''Yasna'' 46.3)[50] |
| h) | | Miller maintains "/Ř/ is the normal phonological reflex of ''
★ -rt-'', and that ''rt'' has been restored according to Kuryłowicz's 'Fourth Law of Analogy' in motivating categories where there was still awareness of a morpheme boundary between the /r/ and the /t/."[6] That is, "''rt'' passes to ''š'' by a regular phonological law, and ''š'' was then replaced morphologically by ''rt'' when the morpheme cut was still evident."[8] |
| j) | | The source reads: "We can conclude, without entering into more detail, that Iran, as India, presents us with a term which has had to signify first of all 'true statement'; that this statement, because it was true, had to correspond to an objective, material reality; and that, as the discourse did, this reality must embrace all things; and, finally that one recognized in it a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it."[10] |
References
1. .
2. qtd. in
.
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. .
11. .
12. .
13. .
14.
15. .
16. .
17. , coll. 229-259.
18. .
19. .
20. .
21. .
22. .
23. .
24. cit.
.
25. .
26. .
27. .
28. .
29. .
30. .
31. .
32. .
33. .
34. .
35. .
36. .
37. .
38. .
39. .
40. .
41. .
42. .
43. .
44. .
45. .
46.
47. .
48. .
49. .
50. .
51. .
52. .
53. .
Bibliography
★
★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>/C.html#47 p. 115.
★ (fasc., 1979, Berlin: de Gruyter)
★
★
★ : 389-390
★ : 1-5
★
★
★
★
★
★ : 705-706
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ : 694-696
★ : 696
★
★
Further reading
★ The story of ''
The Game of Asha'', as adapted from several tales in
Firdausi's Shahnameh.
★
The Bliss of Aša, , Franciscus B. J., Kuiper, Indo-Iranian Journal, 1964
★
Old and new perspectives in the study of the Gathas of Zarathustra, , Hans-Peter, Schmidt, Indo-Iranian Journal, 1979
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