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'Aromanian' (also known as ''Macedo-Romanian'', ''Arumanian'' or Vlach in most other countries; in Aromanian: ''limba armãneascã'', ''armãneshce'' or ''armãneashti'') is an Eastern Romance language spoken in Southeastern Europe. Its speakers are called Aromanians.
It was formed after the Roman conquest of the Balkans and shares many features with modern Romanian, having similar grammar and morphology. The most important dissimilarity between Romanian and Aromanian is the vocabulary, which in the case of the former has been influenced to a greater extent by its neighbouring Slavic languages, while Aromanian has borrowed much vocabulary from the Greek language with which it has been in close contact throughout its history. Also the difference between the two languages have been identified because of the different original languages from which the Aromanian and Romanian have emerged. Namely Aromanian has three different strata in its form: ancient stratum (made from the language spoken in Epirus, Thessaly, Illyria and Macedonia), the Latin stratum (brought from the Roman empire) and Greek or Hellenic stratum which was added during the Roman and Byzantine Empires. In its further development, the language acquired some Turkish words during the reign of the Ottoman Empire.^[1]

Contents

Geographic distribution

Official status

History

Dialects

Grammar

Verbs

Future tense

Pluperfect tense

Gerund

Situation in Greece

Language sample

Comparison with Romanian

Common words and phrases

See also

References

External links

Geographic distribution

The Aromanian language and people are officially recognised as a minority in the Republic of Macedonia, but large Aromanian communities are also found in Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia as well as in Romania, where some Aromanians having migrated from the Balkans after the destruction of the Aromanian centers of Moscopole and Gramostea/Grammos region in Western Macedonia.

Official status

The Aromanian language has a degree of official status in the Republic of Macedonia where Aromanian is taught as an optional subject in some primary schools (in Skopje, Kruševo and Bitola) and Aromanian speakers have the right to use the language in court proceedings. Since 2006 the Aromanian language became the second official language, after Macedonian in city of Kruševo. ^[2]

History

The language is similar to Romanian and its greatest difference lies in the vocabulary. There are far fewer Slavic words in Aromanian than in Romanian, and many more Greek words, a reflection of the close contact of Aromanian with Greek through much of its history.
It is generally considered that sometime between 800 and 1,200 years ago, the Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkan provinces of the Roman Empire split into four languages: Daco-Romanian (today's Romanian language), Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian and Istro-Romanian. Some linguists consider the term ''Proto-Romanian'' not valid.^[3]
Greek influences are much stronger in Aromanian than in other East Romance languages, especially because Aromanian used Greek words to coin new words (neologisms), while Romanian based most of its neologisms on Italian and French.
Also, with the coming of the Turks in the Balkans, Aromanian received some Turkish words as well. Still the lexical composition remains mainly Romance.

Dialects

There are Aromanian dialects which are named after two respective places nowadays located in Albania and Greece: the Moscopole dialect (from the town of Moscopole, also known as the "Aromanian Jerusalem") and the Gramustean dialect (from the Gramostea/Grammos region). Many linguists think that the language spoken by the Farsherots differs significantly from the afore-mentioned and therefore it should be considered as a separate dialect. Also there are the dialects of Malovista, Gopesh, Beala Supra, Krusevo, and the dialects east of the Vardar River in Macedonia.

Grammar

The grammar and morphology are very similar to those of Romanian and unlike the other Romance languages. The definite article is a clitic particle appended at the end of the word, both the definite and indefinite articles can be inflected, and nouns are classified in three genders, with neuter in addition to masculine and feminine.

Verbs

Aromanian grammar does have some features that distinguish it from Romanian, an important one being the complete disappearance of verb infinitives which clearly puts it in the lower part of the Balkans. As such, the tenses and moods that in Romanian use the infinitive (like the future simple tense and the conditional mood), in Aromanian they are formed in other ways. For the same reason, verb entries in dictionaries are given in their indicative mood, present tense, first person, singular form.
Aromanian verbs are classified in four conjugations. The table below gives some examples, indicating also the conjugation of the corresponding verbs in Romanian. ^[4]

Conjugation	Aromanian (ind. pres. 1st sg.)	Romanian (ind. pres. 1st sg.)	Romanian (infinitive)	English
I	cãntu dau lucredzu	cânt dau lucrez	a cânta I a da I a lucra I	sing give work
II	ved şedu armãn	văd şed rămân	a vedea II a şedea II a rămâne III (''or'' a rămânea II)	see sit stay
III	duc cunoscu ardu	duc cunosc ard	a duce III a cunoaşte III a arde III	carry, lead know burn
IV	mor fug îndulţescu	mor fug îndulcesc	a muri IV a fugi IV a îndulci IV	die run sweeten

Future tense

The future tense is formed in the same way as in archaic Romanian, using an auxiliary invariable particle "va" (derived from the verb "to will") and the subjunctive mood.

Aromanian	Romanian (archaic)	English
va s-cãntu	va să cânt	I will sing
va s-cãntsã	va să cânţi	you (''sg.'') will sing
va s-cãntã	va să cânte	he/she will sing
va s-cãntãm	va să cântăm	we will sing
va s-cãntats	va să cântaţi	you (''pl.'') will sing
va s-cãntã	va să cânte	they will sing

Pluperfect tense

Whereas in Romanian the pluperfect tense (past perfect) is formed synthetically (as for instance in Portuguese), Aromanian uses a periphrastic construction with the auxiliary verb ''am'' (have) as the imperfect tense (''aveam'') and the past participle, as in French, except that French replaces ''avoir'' (have) with ''être'' (be) for some verbs. Aromanian shares this feature with Megleno-Romanian as well as other languages in the Balkan linguistic union.
Only the auxiliary verb inflects according to number and person: ''aveam'', ''aveai'', ''avea'', ''aveamu'', ''aveatã'', ''avea'', whereas the past participle doesn't change.^[5]

Aromanian	Megleno-Romanian	Romanian	English
avea mãcatã	vea mancat	mâncase	(he/she) had eaten
	vea durmit	dormise	(he/she) had slept

Gerund

The gerund which exists in Aromanian is only applied to some verbs, not all. These verbs are:

★ 1st conjugation: ''acatsã (acãtsãnda(lui)), portu, lucreashce, adiljeashce''.

★ 2nd conjugation: ''armãnã, cade, poate, tatse, veade''.

★ 3rd conjugation: ''arupã, dipune, dutse, dzãse, featse, tradze, scrie''.

★ 4th conjugation: ''apire, doarme, hivrie, aure, pate, avde''.

Situation in Greece

Even before the incorporation of Aromanian-speaking territories into the Greek state, the language was subordinated to Greek, traditionally the Aromanians' language of education and religion. The historical studies cited below (mostly Capidan) show that especially after the fall of Moscopole (1788) the process of grecization via education and religion gained a strong impetus mostly among people doing business in the cities.
The Romanian state began opening schools for the Aromanians in the 1860s, but this initiative was regarded with suspicion by some Aromanians, who thought Romania was trying to assimilate them. Antagonism between grecized Aromanians (known as "grecomani") who rejected what they perceived as Romanian propaganda, and those who accepted their non-Greek (latin) identity promoted in the Romanian schools, tore apart the Aromanian community in the first half of the 20th century. The grecomans and the Greek militia (known as "antarti") terrorized the Pindus region between 1903-1912 leading to a diplomatic crisis with Romania in 1911 (see Adina Berciu, Maria Petre: 2004).
In 1948, the new Soviet-imposed communist regime of Romania closed all Romanian-run schools outside Romania and since the closure, there has been no formal education in Aromanian and speakers have been encouraged to learn and use the Greek language.
The issue of Aromanian-language education is still a sensitive one, partly because of the painful memories. Greek propaganda is still very strong in the area, Aromanians being considered a sort of "latinized greeks". The pro Greek lobby oppose the introduction of the language into the education system as EU and leading Greek political figures have suggested, viewing it as an artificial distinction between them and other Greeks. For example, the former education minister, George Papandreou, received a negative response from Aromanian mayors and associations to his proposal for a trial Aromanian language education programme. The Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs (Πανελλήνια Ομοσπονδία Πολιτιστικών Συλλόγων Βλάχων) expressed strong opposition to EU's recommendation in
1997 that the tuition of Aromanian be supported so as to avoid its extinction.[2]. On a visit to Metsovo, Epirus in 1998, Greek President Costis Stephanopoulos called on Vlachs to speak and teach their language, but its decline continues.
A recent example of the sensitivity of the issue was the 2001 conviction (later overturned in the Appeals Court) to 15 months in jail of Sotiris Bletsas [3][4], a Greek Aromanian who was found guilty of "dissemination of false information" after he distributed informative material on minority languages in Europe (which included information on minority languages of Greece), produced by the ''European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages'' and financed by the European Commission. His conviction met with broad condemnation in Greece [5] and it emerged that his case was zealously pursued by Aromanian leaders who viewed themselves as patriotic Greeks and felt confronted by the suggestion that they belonged to a "minority". Bletsas was eventually acquitted [6].

Language sample

:''Tatã a nostru''
:''cai eshci pi tser,''
:''s-ayisascã numa a Ta,''
:''s-yinã Amirãrilja a Ta,''
:''s-facã vreare-a Ta,''
:''cum pi tserlu,''
:''ashi sh-pisti loc.''
:''Pãne-a nostrã atsea di cathi dzuã dã-nã-u sh-azã''
:''shi ljartã-nã amãrtiile-a noastre''
:''ashi cum lji-ljirtãm sh-a amãrtoshlor a noshci.''
:''Shi nu nã-du la pirazmo,''
:''ala aveaglji-nã di atsel arãulu.''
:''Cã a Ta easte Amirãrilja shi puteare''
:''a Tatãlui shi Hiljlui shi a Ayului Spirit,''
:''torã, totãna shi tu eta-a etilor.''
:''Amen.''
(the Lord's Prayer - )
:''Tuti iatsãli umineshtsã s-fac liberi shi egali la nãmuzea shi-ndrepturli. Eali suntu hãrziti cu fichiri shi sinidisi shi lipseashti un cu alantu sh-si poartã tu duhlu-a frãtsãljiljei.''
:(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights), translated by Dina Cuvata

Comparison with Romanian

The following text is given for comparison in Aromanian and in Romanian, with an English translation. The spelling of Aromanian is that decided at the Bitola Symposium of August 1997. The word choice in the Romanian version was such that it matches the Aromanian text, although in modern Romanian other words might have been more appropriate. The English translation is only provided as a guide to the meaning, with an attempt to keep the word order as close to the original as possible.

Aromanian	Romanian	English
Vocala easti un son dit zburãrea-a omlui, faptu cu tritsearea sonorã, libirã sh-fãrã cheadicã, a vimtului prit canalu sonor (adrat di coardili vocali shi ntreaga gurã) icã un semnu grafic cari aspuni un ahtari son.	Vocala este un sunet din vorbirea omului, făcut cu trecerea sonoră, liberă şi fără piedică, a vîntului prin canalul sonor (compus din coardele vocale şi întreaga gură) sau un semn grafic care reprezintă un atare sunet.	The vowel is a sound in human speech, made by the sonorous, free and unhindered passing of the air through the sound channel (composed of the vocal chords and the whole mouth) or a graphic symbol corresponding to that sound.
Ashi bunãoarã, avem shasili vocali tsi s-fac cu vimtul tsi treatsi prit gurã, iu limba poati si s-aflã tu un loc icã altu shi budzãli pot si sta dishcljisi unã soe icã altã.	Aşa bunăoară, avem şase vocale ce se fac cu vîntul ce trece prin gură, unde limba poate să se afle într-un loc sau altul şi buzele pot să stea deschise un soi sau altul.	This way, we have six vowels that are produced by the air passing through the mouth, where the tongue can be in one place or another and the lips can be opened in one way or another.
Vocalili pot s-hibã pronuntsati singuri icã deadun cu semivocali i consoani.	Vocalele pot să fie pronunţate singure sau deodată cu semivocale sau consoane.	The vowels can be pronounced alone or together with semivowels or consonants.

Common words and phrases

English	Aromanian
Aromanian (person)	(m.) 'Armãn', (f.) 'Armãnã'
Aromanian (language)	'Limba armãneascã', 'Armãneashce'
Greetings!	'Buna dzuã!'
What's your name?	'Cum ti chljamã?'
How are you?	'Cum hits?' (formal) 'Cum eshci?' (informal)
What are you doing?	'Tsi fats?'
Goodbye!	'S-nã videm cu ghine!'
Bye!	'Ciao!'
Please.	'Vã-plãcãrsescu.' (formal) 'Ti-plãcãrsescu' (informal)
Sorry.	'Ãnj-easte jale.'
Thank you.	'Haristo.'
Yes.	'Da.'
No.	'Nu.'
I don't understand.	'Nu achicãsescu.'
Where's the bathroom?	'Iu easte toaletlu?'
Do you speak English?	'Zburats anglicheashce?'
I am a student.	'Mine escu studentu.'

See also

★ The Balkan linguistic union

References

★ Capidan, Theodor. ''Aromânii, dialectul Aromân'', Academia Română, Studii şi cercetări, XX 1932.

★ Friedman, Victor A., "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" ''in'' ''Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies'', ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, Martii Leiwo, Jussi Halla-aho. ''Slavica Helsingiensa'' '21'. University of Helsinki, 2001. online

★ Kahl, Thede, "Aromanians in Greece: Minority or Vlach-speaking Greeks?". Online: [7]

★ Rosetti, Alexandru. ''Istoria limbii române'', 2 vols., Bucharest, 1965-1969.

★ Berciu-Drăghicescu, Adina; Petre Maria, "Şcoli şi Biserici româneşti din Peninsula Balcanică. Documente (1864-1948)", Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, 2004.
1. Зборник на трудови од мегународниот научен симпозиум „Власите на Балканот“, Скопје 2002/2004 (Collection of papers from the International Scientific Symposium "The Aromanians on the Balkans", Skopje 2002/2004).
2. http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc97/edoc7728.htm
3. Зборник на трудови од мегународниот научен симпозиум „Власите на Балканот“, Скопје 2002/2004
4. Iancu Ianachievski-Vlahu ''Gramatica armãneascã simplã shi practicã'', Crushuva 1993, 1997; Μιχάλη Μπογιάτζη ''Βλαχική ήτοι μάκεδοβλαχική γραμματική'' Βιέννη, and Κατσάνης Ν., Κ. Ντίνας, 1990, Γραμματική της κοινής Κουτσοβλαχικής.
5. Iancu Ianachievski- Vlahu ''Gramatica simplã shi practicã'', Crushuva 1993, 1997.

External links

★ Aromanian Language website

★ Στα Βλάχικα - In Vlach: A website about the Vlach language in Greece

★ Ethnologue entry for Aromanian

★ Asterios Koukoudis: Studies on the Vlachs

★ Greek Helsinki Human Rights Organization: Aromanians (Vlachs) in Greece

★ Conjugation of verbs in Aromanian and Istro-Romanian

★ Romanian and the Balkans, with some references to Aromanian

★ Aromaniacatholica, Aromanian with the traditional alphabet