'Angola' is a country in south-central
Africa bordering
Namibia to the south,
Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, and
Zambia to the east, and with a west coast along the
Atlantic Ocean. The
exclave province
Cabinda has a border with the
Republic of the Congo and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. A former
Portuguese colony, it has considerable natural resources, among which
oil and
diamonds are the most significant. The country is nominally a
democracy and is formally named the 'Republic of Angola' (,
pronounced , ).
History
Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657.
The earliest people of the area were
Khoisan hunter-gatherers. They were largely replaced by
Bantu tribes during Bantu
migrations, though small numbers of Khoisan remain in parts of southern Angola to the present day.
The geographical area now designated as Angola first became the subject to incursions by Europeans in the late 15th century. In
1483 Portugal established a base at the
river Congo, where the
Kongo State,
Ndongo and
Lunda existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern
Gabon in the north to the
Kwanza River in the south. In
1575 Portugal established a colony at
Cabinda based on slave trade. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the sixteenth century by a series of treaties and wars forming the country of Angola. The
Dutch occupied Luanda from
1641-
1648, where they allied with local tribes to consolidate their colonial rule against the remaining Portuguese resistance.
Colonial era
In
1648, Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a process of reconquest of lost territories, which restored the pre-occupation possessions of Portugal by
1650. Treaties regulated relations with Congo in
1649 and Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo in
1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in
1671 was the last great Portuguese expansion, as attempts to invade Congo in
1670 and Matamba in
1681 failed.
Portugal expanded its territory behind the colony of Benguela in the eighteenth century, and began the attempt to occupy other regions in the mid-nineteenth century. The process resulted in few gains until the 1880s. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the twentieth century. In
1951, the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa.
Portugal had a presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and the population's initial reaction to calls for independence was mixed.
Independence
After the overthrow of
colonial Portugal's government by a socialist-inspired military coup, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in January
1975. An agreement was reached with the Portuguese government, with independence to be declared in November 1975. Almost immediately, a
civil war broke out between
MPLA,
UNITA and
FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention. Upon independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola's capital and nominal government came under the one-party rule of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA).
South Africa soon became involved in the Angolan conflict, ostensibly to protect its interests in its territory of
South West Africa, present-day
Namibia. The South West Africa People's Organization (
SWAPO) was fighting for independence from South Africa from bases inside Angola. In an attempt to prevent cross-border operations by SWAPO forces, the South African military, the
South African Defense Forces, cleared a one-kilometer-wide strip in Angola along nearly half the length of the 1,376 km long border.
Zaire, which had provided support to FNLA guerrillas, soon began to furnish support for UNITA as well. In turn, the Soviet Union began to significantly increase military aid to MPLA, providing armored vehicles, aircraft, and advisors, while large numbers of
Cuban troops were airlifted by Soviet transport planes into Angola in an undisguised effort to tip the military balance in favour of the MPLA. By October 1975, MPLA and Cuban forces took control of Luanda, and much of the country's infrastructure, forcing UNITA forces to revert to guerrilla actions. The MPLA declared itself unilaterally to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with
Agostinho Neto as the first President.
In
1976, the FNLA was defeated by Cuban troops, leaving the MPLA and UNITA (now backed by the United States and
South Africa) to fight for power. Since
1979,
Jose Eduardo dos Santos has been in control of the country's political leadership. Despite the introduction of a multi-party system in
1991, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) has remained in power. "In 1976, controversy over U.S. covert assistance to paramilitary forces in Angola led to legislative bans on such action."
[1] [2]
Civil war
The conflict between MPLA and UNITA raged on in the countryside, fueled by the geopolitics of the
Cold War and by the ability of both parties to access Angola's natural resources. In 1991, the factions agreed to the
Bicesse Accords which were intended to convert Angola from a one-party authoritarian government into a multiparty state with democratic elections in 1992. President dos Santos led the first round of the election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%. After claims of fraud, civil war again broke out, and the final runoff election never took place. A
1994 peace accord (the
Lusaka protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA
insurgents into the government. A national unity government was installed in
1997, but serious fighting resumed in late
1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. The international community largely blamed UNITA for the breakdown in the Lusaka peace process; as a consequence the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against them (Kevlihan, 2003). Despite the formation of a government of national unity, which included disaffected elements of UNITA (UNITA-Renovada), generally known by its Portuguese acronym of GURN, power remained with the MPLA, concentrated in particular in the hands of the President Dos Santos and his circle of close advisors.
The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil resources, while UNITA accessed alluvial
diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders (Chilliers & Dietrich, 2000, Le Billon, 2001). The Angolan government was heavily criticized by human rights organizations for a lack of transparency in the sources and uses of its oil revenue during this time (Global Witness (1999), Human Rights Watch (2004)); what detailed analysis was possible of Angola's expenditure on social services during the war highlighted the extremely low levels of expenditure on health and education, and the way in which large proportions of available budgets benefited elites through scholarships and access to health care overseas (Hodges, 2004). Meanwhile, Angola suffered from one of the highest caseloads of internally displaced persons in the world, displacement caused in large part by the military tactics of both UNITA and government forces (Lari & Kevlihan (2005), Médecins Sans Frontières (2002)).
Ceasefire with UNITA
On
February 22 2002,
Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops, and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, President dos Santos has so far refused to institute regular democratic processes. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of
minefields, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of
Cabinda (
Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda). While most of the internally displaced have now returned home, the general situation for most Angolans remains desperate, and the development challenges facing the government challenging as a consequence (Lari (2004), Human Rights Watch (2005)).
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Angola
Angola's motto is "Virtus Unita Fortior", a
Latin phrase meaning "Virtue is stronger when united."
The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently
Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos) and Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only twelve of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Critics have drawn an ironic comparison between Angola's current one-party rule and the authoritarian regime of
António de Oliveira Salazar of Portugal, under whose rule Angolans began their revolt for independence.
The 27-year-long
Angolan Civil War ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.
The current government has announced an intention to hold elections in 2008. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.
Provinces and municipalities
Map of Angola with the provinces numbered
,
Municipalities of Angola
Angola is divided into
eighteen provinces (''províncias'') and 158 municipalities (''municípios''). The provinces are:
Military
Main articles: Military of Angola
The 'Angolan Armed Forces' ('FAA') is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense.
There are three divisions--the 'Army', Navy ('Marinha de Guerra', MdG), and '
Air and Air Defense Forces' (' Força Aerea Nacional', FAN). Total manpower is about 110,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 100,000 men and women. The Navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes
Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes.
A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the
Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville).
Police
The National Police departments are : Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, which will provide helicopter support for police operations. The National Police are also developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The National Police has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 Taxation and Frontier Supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and 90 Economic Activity Inspectors.
The National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization; modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9mm UZIs for police officers in urban areas.
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Angola
At 481,321
mi² (1,246,700
km²),
[2] Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country (after
Niger). It is comparable in size to
Mali and is nearly twice the size of the US state of
Texas, or five times the area of the
UK.
Angola is bordered by
Namibia to the south,
Zambia to the east, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, and the
South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The
exclave of
Cabinda also borders the
Republic of the Congo to the north. Angola's capital,
Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country. Angola's average temperature on the coast is 60 degrees Fahrenheit (16 °C) in the winter and 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 °C) in the summer.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Angola
Angola's economy has undergone a period of transformation in recent years, moving from the disarray caused by a quarter century of war to being the fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan is being used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and has also limited the influence of the
International Monetary Fund in the country.
[3]
Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed 1.4 million barrels per day in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to 2 million barrels per day by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in
Sonangol Group, a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of
OPEC.
[3] The economy grew 18% in 2005; growth is expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Angola
Angola was ruled by
Portugal and both countries share cultural aspects: language (
Portuguese) and main religion (
Roman Catholic Christianity). But since most Angolans are blacks, the Angolan culture is mostly native Bantu which was mixed with
Portuguese culture.
Capoeira Angola
Once synonymous to slavery, outlaws and violence,
Capoeira is now well known all over the world as an art form, and has fascinated thousands.
Capoeira is divided in two parts: Capoeira Regional and Capoeira Angola. Capoeira Regional is a modern and popular form of capoeira. Capoeira Angola is the original form, created in Brazil by African slaves.
Capoeira Angola has roots in the wedding rituals of the Bantu tribe, where the Dance of the Zebra, the N´golo, was a sparring between young warriors. That is why the Zebra is part of the Capoeira Angola logo.
Capoeira Angola is a sparring between friends, an exciting game in the middle of the "roda", a ring formed by musicians and singers.
It is fight, dance, play, music and philosophy, all in one.
For years Capoeira was practiced in secrecy and it was not lawful to practice and teach until after the 1930s; forty years after the abolition of slavery.
Berimbau is an instrument related with capoeira, it commands the roda, and determines the kind of fight (Angola or Regional)
Public holidays
Angola is notable as it has 15 public holidays over the year.
These are:
★
January 1 -
New Year's Day
★
January 4 - Day of the Fallen against the colonial repression
★
January 25 -
Luanda's Day
★
February 4 - Day of the Armed Struggle
★
March 8 -
International Women's Day
★
April 4 - Peace day
★
May 1 -
Labour Day
★
May 25 -
Africa's Day
★
June 1 -
International Children's Day
★
September 17 -
Agostinho Neto's Day and National Heroes Day
★
November 2 - Day of the Dead
★
December 25 -
Christmas
★
December 31 -
New Year's Eve
Movable public holidays:
★
Easter
★
Carnival
See also
'Lists'
★
List of Angolan companies
★
List of writers from Angola
★
List of Angola-related topics
References
1. [Congressional Research Service, Congressional Use of Funding Cutoffs Since 1970 Involving U.S. Military Forces and Overseas Deployments, January 10, 2001, pg. 5.]
2. [1]
3. Angola: Country Admitted As Opec Member
★ Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
★ Global Witness (1999). A Crude Awakening, The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening
★ Hodges, T. (2004). Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press.
★ Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/
★ Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/
★ Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2." Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95-106.
★ Lari, A. (2004). Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf
★ Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola." African Security Review 13(4): 29-41. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf
★ Le Billon, P. (2001). "Angola’s Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds." African Affairs(100): 55-80.
★ Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). Angola: Sacrifice of a People. Luanda, Angola, MSF. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf
★ Pinto Escoval [2004): "Staatszerfall im südlichen Afrika. Das Beispiel Angola". Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin
★ ''Much of the material in these articles comes from the
CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
Bibliography
★ Le Billon, P. (2005). "Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola." Disasters 29(1): 1-25.
★ Pearce, J. (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas." 2005.African Security Review 13 (2), 2004, pp 51-64. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf
★ Porto, J. G. (2003). Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html
★ Tvedten, I. (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press.
★ Vines, A. (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch.
External links
;Government
★
Republic of Angola (official government portal)
★
National Assembly of Angola
★
Embassy of Angola in Washington DC
★
Embassy of Angola in Ottawa, Canada
;News
★
Comunidade Mwangole Online News about music from Angola and events, Videos, Mp3
★
children of Angola - a web documentary on the forgotten children of Angola.
★
- Newspapers from Angola - The most important online newspapers from Angola.
★
Mwangole Amizades Angola Dating, relationship, and more
★
allAfrica - Angola - News headline links
★
Angola Press - Government-controlled news agency (in Portuguese, French and English)
★
Angola Xyami - Angola Minha Terra (in Portuguese)- Reflections end News on new Angola in peace
★
Angonoticias (in Portuguese) - A popular news source in Angola
★
Mangole (in Portuguese) - A full news source in Angola and web directory of Angolan sites online
★
Televisão Pública de Angola (in Portuguese) - Angola's state-owned national tv station
★
Rádio Nacional de Angola (in Portuguese) - Angola's state-owned national radio station
★
Jornal de Angola (in Portuguese) - A popular newspaper in Angola
★
400 Years Ago - ''
Washington Post'' news story on the possible fate of the first African slaves taken to US.
;Politics
★
Official webpage of MPLA
★
Official webpage of UNITA
★
Official webpage of JMPLA
;Overviews
★
BBC - Country profile: ''Angola''
★
★
US State Department - ''Angola'' includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
★
OECD DEV/AfDB - Country Study: ''Angola''
★
Rural poverty in Angola (
IFAD)
★
World Bank Country Brief: Angola
;Directories
★
Columbia University Libraries - ''Angola'' directory category of the WWW-VL
★
Open Directory Project - ''Angola'' directory category
★
Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Angola'' directory category
★
www.angolinks.com - webdirectory of Angolan sites online
★
Encyclopedia of the Nations : Angola
;Tourism
★
;Other
★
Can Corporate Power Transform Equatorial Guinea and Angola?
★
Angola Conflict Briefing
★
Angola Constitution
★
www.luandamap.com - streetsearch in Luanda and other maps related to Angola
★
www.cidadeluanda.com - Portal and Directory of Luanda
★
Angola Paper Money
العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
Español
