'Anglican doctrine' (or 'Episcopal doctrine') is a wide body of Christian religious teachings that are variously taught in
Anglican churches, Sunday schools and theological colleges, and used to guide the religious and moral practices of Anglican believers.
Approach to doctrine
Anglicanism does not possess an agreed-upon confession of faith, like the
Presbyterian Westminster Confession, nor does it claim a founding theologian, like a
John Calvin or a
Martin Luther, or a central authority, such as the
Roman Catholic magisterium, to set the parameters of acceptable belief and practice. The only agreed-upon foundations of Anglican doctrine, shared universally, are the three great creeds of the early
ecumenical councils (the
Apostles',
Nicene and
Athanasian Creeds), the principles enshrined in the so-called
Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, and the dispersed authority of the four
instruments of unity of the
Anglican Communion.
In addition to this, there are two parallel streams informing doctrinal development and understanding in Anglicanism. First, there is the informal stream of appeal to the historical formularies, prayer-books and ordinals, and the so-called "standard divines." Most prominent of the historical formularies are the
Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, principally authored by
Thomas Cranmer. These are divided into four sections, moving from the general (the fundamentals of the faith) to the particular (the interpretation of scripture, the structure and authority of the church, and the relationship between church and society). Anglicans also take the principle of ''
lex orandi, lex credendi'' seriously; regarding the content, form, and rubrics of
liturgy as an important element of doctrinal understanding, development, and interpretation. Finally, Anglicans cite the work of the standard divines — in other words, foundational theologians — of Anglicanism as instructive. Such divines usually include such figures as Cranmer,
Richard Hooker,
Lancelot Andrewes, and
John Jewel, amongst others.
The second stream of doctrine is contained in the formally adopted doctrinal positions of the constitutions and
canon law of various churches of the Communion ("Communion provinces"). These are usually formulated by
General Synods of national or regional churches, and interpreted and enforced by a
bishop-in-council structure, involving consultation between the episcopacy and delegated lay and clerical leadership, although the extent of the devolution of authority from the episcopacy varies from place to place. This stream is the only binding, enforceable expression of doctrine in Anglicanism, which can sometimes result in conflicting doctrinal understandings between Communion provinces.
Interpretation of doctrine
The foundations and streams of doctrine are interpreted through the lenses of various
Christian movements, which have gained wide acceptance among
clergy and
laity. Prominent among those in the latter part of the
20th century and the early
21st century are
Liberal Christianity,
Anglo-Catholicism, and
Evangelicalism. The lenses afforded by these perspectives emphasise or supplement particular aspects of historical theological writings, canon law, formularies, and prayer books. These perspectives often conflict with each other, and can conflict with the formal doctrines. Some of these differences help to define ''parties'' or ''factions'' within Anglicanism. However, with certain notable exceptions that led to
schisms, Anglicans have grown a tradition of tolerating internal differences. This tradition of tolerance is sometimes known as
comprehensiveness.
Origins of Anglican doctrine
Anglican doctrine emerged from the interweaving of two main strands of
Christian doctrine during the
English Reformation in the
16th and
17th centuries. The first strand is the
Catholic doctrine taught by the established church in
England in the early
1500s. The second strand is a range of
Protestant Reformed teachings brought to England from neighbouring countries in the same period, notably
Calvinism and
Lutheranism.
At the time of the Reformation, the Church of England was the national expression of the institutional
Catholic Church. The formal doctrines had been documented in
canon law over the centuries, and the Church of England still follows an unbroken tradition of canon law
today. The
English Reformation did not dispense of all previous doctrines. The church not only retained the core Catholic beliefs common to Reformed doctrine in general, such as the
Trinity, the
Virgin Birth of Jesus, the nature of Jesus as fully human and fully God, the
Resurrection of Jesus,
Original Sin, and
Excommunication (as affirmed by the
Thirty-Nine Articles), but also retained some Catholic teachings which were rejected by true Protestants, such as the
three orders of ministry and the
apostolic succession of bishops. It is for this reason that Anglican doctrine is often said to tread a middle path, or ''
via media'' between
Roman Catholic and Protestant perspectives.
Foundational elements of Anglican doctrine
Scripture, creeds, and ecumenical councils
At the root of Anglican doctrine are the foundational documents of Christianity – all the books of the
Old and
New Testaments are accepted, but the books of the
Apocrypha, while recommended as instructive by Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles, are declared not “to establish any doctrine.”
Article VIII of the Thirty-Nine Articles declared the three Catholic creeds — the Apostles’, the Nicene, and the Athanasian — to be “be proved by most certain warrants of holy Scripture,” and were included in the first and subsequent editions of The Book of Common Prayer. All Anglican prayer books continue to include the Apostles’ and Nicene Creed. Some — such as the Church of England’s
Common Worship or
A New Zealand Prayer Book — omit the Athanasian Creed, but include alternative "affirmations." This liturgical diversity suggests that the principles enunciated by the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds remain doctrinally unimpeachable. Nonetheless, metaphorical or spiritualised interpretations of some of the creedal declarations — for instance, the virgin birth of Jesus and his resurrection — have been commonplace in Anglicanism since the integration of biblical
critical theory into theological discourse in the nineteenth century.
The first four ecumenical councils of
Nicea,
Constantinople,
Ephesus, and
Chalcedon "have a special place in Anglican theology, secondary to the Scriptures themselves."
[1] This authority is usually considered to pertain to questions of the nature of Christ (the
hypostasis of divine and human) and the relationships between the Persons of the
Holy Trinity, summarised chiefly in the creeds which emerged from those councils. Nonetheless, Article XXI of The Thirty-Nine Articles limit the authority of these and other ecumenical councils, noting that "they may err, and sometimes have erred." In other words, their authority being strictly derivative from and accountable to scripture.
The Thirty-Nine Articles
Main articles: Thirty-Nine Articles
Reformed doctrine and
theology were developed into a distinctive English form by bishops and theologians led by Thomas Cranmer and
Matthew Parker. Their doctrine was summarised in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion which were adopted by the
Parliament of England and the Church of England in
1571.
The early English Reformers, like contemporaries on the European continent such as
John Calvin,
John Knox and
Martin Luther, rejected many Roman Catholic teachings. The Thirty-Nine Articles list core
Reformed doctrines such as the sufficiency of the
Holy Scriptures for salvation, the execution of Jesus as "the perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins of the whole world",
Predestination and
Election. Some of the articles are simple statements of opposition to Roman Catholic doctrine, such as Article XIV which denies "Works of
Supererogation", Article XV which implicitly excludes the
Immaculate Conception, and XXII which explicitly rejects the concept of
Purgatory. Catholic worship and teaching was at the time conducted in
Latin, while the Articles required church services to use the
vernacular. By the same token, the Articles show their
Calvinist influence by rejecting other strands of
Protestant teaching, such as those of the doctrine of common property of "certain
Anabaptists."
Unlike the
Scottish Reformers the Articles hew out a ''via media'' between Roman Catholic and extreme Protestant views, alluded to above. For example, in contrast to Calvin, the Articles did not explicitly reject the
Lutheran doctrine of
consubstantiation. They also endorse an
Episcopal polity, appointing the English monarch as
Supreme Governor of the Church of England to replace the
Bishop of Rome. The Articles can also be read as permitting the acceptance of the five so-called "non-dominical" sacraments as legitimately sacramental, in addition to
Baptism and the
Eucharist.
Over the years, the
Church of England has not amended the Thirty-Nine Articles. However,
synodical legislators made changes to canon law to accommodate those who feel unable to adhere strictly to the Thirty-Nine Articles. The legal form of the declaration of assent required of clergy on their appointment, which was at its most rigid in
1689, was amended in
1865 and again in
1975 to allow more latitude. Outside the Church of England, the Articles have an even less secure status, and are generally treated as an edifying historical document not binding on the doctrine or practice of Communion provinces.
Prayer-books
Main articles: Book of Common Prayer
The original Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England was published in 1549, and its most recently approved successor was issued in 1662. It is this edition that national prayer-books (with the exception of Scotland’s) used as a template as the Anglican Communion spread outside England. The foundational status of the 1662 edition has led to its being cited as an authority on doctrine. This status reflects a more pervasive element of Anglican doctrinal development, namely that of ''lex orandi, lex credendi'', or "the law of prayer is the law of belief"
[2] (see below).
The Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral
Main articles: Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral
The Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral is a summation of Anglican theology, often cited as a basic summary of the essentials of Anglican doctrine. The four points are:
#The Holy Scriptures, as containing all things necessary to salvation;
#The Creeds (specifically, the Apostles’ and Nicene), as the sufficient statement of Christian faith;
#The dominical sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion;
#The historic
episcopate, locally adapted.
The four points were included in resolutions of the
Episcopal Church in the United States of 1886 and (more significantly) the 1888
Lambeth Conference of bishops of the Anglican Communion. Primarily intended as a means of pursuing ecumenical dialogue with the Roman Catholic Church, the Quadrilateral soon became a “sine qua non” for essential Anglican identity.
Standard divines
As mentioned above, Anglicanism has no theologian comparable to the founding theologians of eponymous schools, like
Lutheranism,
Calvinism, or
Thomism. Nonetheless, it has writers whose works are regarded as standards for faith and doctrine. While there is no definitive list, such individuals are implicitly recognised as authoritative by their inclusion in
Anglican liturgical calendars or in anthologies of works on Anglican theology. These include such early figures as
Lancelot Andrewes,
John Cosin,
Thomas Cranmer,
Richard Hooker,
John Jewel,
Matthew Parker, and
Jeremy Taylor; and later figures such as
Joseph Butler,
William Law,
John Wesley, and
George Whitefield. The nineteenth century produced several prominent Anglican thinkers, notably
John Keble,
Frederick Denison Maurice,
John Henry Newman, and
Edward Pusey. More recently,
Charles Gore,
Michael Ramsey, and
William Temple have been included among the pantheon. While this list gives a snapshot, it is not exhaustive, but while many Anglicans would include other names to the list, few would exclude any of the ones enumerated.
The importance of doctrinal development in Anglicanism
Given that the foundational elements of Anglican doctrine are either not binding or are subject to local interpretation, methodology has tended to assume a place of key importance. Hence, it is not so much a body of doctrinal statements so much as the process of doctrinal development that is important in Anglican theological identity.
Lex orandi, lex credendi
Main articles: Lex orandi, lex credendi
Anglicanism has traditionally expressed its doctrinal convictions based on the prayer texts and liturgy of the church. In other words, appeal has typically been made to what Anglicans do and prescribe in common worship, enunciated in the texts of the Book of Common Prayer and other national prayer books, to guide theology and practice. Applying this axiom to doctrine, there are three venues for its expression in the worship of the Church:
★ The selection, arrangement, and composition of prayers and exhortations;
★ The selection and arrangement of the lectionary; and
★ The
rubrics (regulations) for liturgical action and variations in the prayers and exhortations.
[3]
The principle of ''lex orandi, lex credendi'' functions according to the so-called "three-legged stool" of scripture, tradition, and reason attributed to Richard Hooker.
[4] This doctrinal stance is intended to enable Anglicanism to construct a theology that is pragmatic, focused on the institution of the church, yet engaged with the world. It is, in short, a theology that places a high value on the traditions of the faith and the intellect of the faithful, acknowledging the primacy of the worshipping community in articulating, amending, and passing down the church’s beliefs. In doing so, Anglican theology is inclined towards a
comprehensive consensus concerning the principles of the tradition and the relationship between the church and society. In this sense, Anglicans have viewed their theology as strongly
incarnational — expressing the conviction that God is revealed in the physical and temporal things of everyday life and the attributes of specific times and places.
This approach has its hazards, however. For instance, there is a countervailing tendency to be "text-centric," that is, to focus on the technical, historical, and interpretative aspects of prayer books and their relationship to the institution of the church, rather than on the relationship between faith and life. Second, the emphasis on comprehensiveness often instead results in compromise or tolerance of every viewpoint. The effect that is created is that Anglicanism may appear to stand for nothing or for everything, and that an unstable and unsatisfactory middle-ground is staked while theological disputes wage interminably. Finally, while ''lex orandi, lex credendi'' helped solidify a uniform Anglican perspective when the 1662 Prayer Book and its successors predominated, and while expatriate bishops of the
United Kingdom enforced its conformity in territories of the
British Empire, this has long since ceased to be true. Liturgical reform and the
post-colonial reorganisation of national churches has led to a growing diversity in common worship since the middle of the twentieth century.
The process of doctrinal development
The principle of ''lex orandi, lex credendi'' discloses a larger theme in the approach of Anglicanism to doctrine, namely, that doctrine is considered a lived experience; since in living it, the community comes to understand its character. In this sense, doctrine is considered to be a dynamic, participatory enterprise rather than a static one.
This inherent sense of dynamism was articulated by
John Henry Newman a century and a half ago, when he asked how, given the passage of time, we can be sure that the Christianity of today is the same religion as that envisioned and developed by
Jesus Christ and the
apostles.
[5] As indicated above, Anglicans look to the teaching of the Bible and of the undivided Church of the first five centuries as the sufficient criterion for an understanding of doctrine, as expressed in the creeds. Yet they are only a criterion: interpretation, and thus doctrinal development, is thoroughly contextual. The reason this is the case is chiefly due to three factors:
#Differing theories of
interpretation of scripture, developed as a result of the
symbolic nature of language, the difficulty of translating its cultural and temporal aspects, and the particular perceptual lenses worn by authors;
#The accumulation of knowledge through science and philosophy; and
#The emerging necessity of giving some account of the relationship of Christ to distinct and evolving cultural realities throughout the world, as Christianity has spread to different places.
Newman’s suggestion of two criteria for the sound development of doctrine has permeated Anglican thinking. These are, first, that development must be open and accessible to the faithful at every stage; and second, that it must be subject to appeal to scripture and the precedents of antiquity through the process of sound scholarship. The method by which this is accomplished is by the distillation of doctrine through, and its subordination to a dominant Anglican
ethos consisting of the maintenance of order through consensus, comprehensiveness, and contract; and a preference for pragmatism over speculation.
[6] In other words, the former — experience — flows from the latter — method. Anglican doctrinal
methodology means concurrence with a base structure of shared identity: An agreement on the fundamentals of the faith articulated in the creeds; the existence of Protestant and catholic elements creating both a ''via media'' as well as a "union of opposites"
[7]; and the conviction that there is development in understanding the truth, expressed more in practical terms rather than theoretical ones.
[8] In short, the character of Anglicanism is that the church "contains in itself many elements regarded as mutually exclusive in other communions."
[9]
Formal doctrine
Anglican churches in other countries generally inherited the doctrinal apparatus of the Church of England, consisting most commonly an adaptation of the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Quadrilateral into general principles. From the earliest times, they have adapted them to suit their local needs.
Constitutions and canon law
Canon law in the churches of the Anglican Communion stem from the law of the
patristic and
Medieval Western church which was received, along with the limiting conditions of the
English Reformation. Canon law touches on several areas of church life:
ecclesiology, that is, the governance and structure of the church as an institution; liturgy; relationships with secular institutions; and the doctrines which implicitly or explicitly touch on these matters. Such laws have varying degrees and means of enforcement, variability, and jurisdiction.
The nature of canon law is complicated by the status of the Church of England as subordinate to the crown; a status which does not affect jurisdictions outside England, including those of the
Scottish Episcopal Church, the
Church of Ireland, and the
Church in Wales. It is further complicated by the relationship between the autonomous churches of the Communion itself; since the canon law of one jurisdiction has no status in that of another. Moreover, there is — as mentioned above — no international
juridical system which can formulate or enforce uniformity in any matter. This has led to conflict regarding certain issues (see below), leading to calls for a "covenant" specifying the parameters of Anglican doctrinal development (see
Anglican realignment for discussion).
Instruments of unity
Main articles: Anglican Communion
As mentioned above, the Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. The Archbishop of Canterbury's role is strictly symbolic and unifying; and the Communion's three international bodies are consultative and collaborative, their resolutions having no legal effect on the independent provinces of the Communion. Taken together, however, the four do function as "instruments of unity", since all churches of the Communion partcipate in them. In order of antiquity, they are:
# The
Archbishop of Canterbury, as the spiritual head of the Communion, is the focus of unity, since no church claims membership in the Communion without being in communion with him.
# The
Lambeth Conference is a consultation of the bishops of the Communion, intended to reinforce unity and collegiality through manifesting the
episcopate, to discuss matters of mutual concern, and to pass resolutions intended to act as guideposts. It is held roughly every ten years and invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
# The
Anglican Consultative Council meets usually at three year intervals. Consisting of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces, the body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president.
# The
Primates' Meeting is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop of Canterbury
Donald Coggan as a forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation."
[10]
Since there is no binding authority in the Communion, these international bodies are a vehicle for consultation and persuasion. In recent years, persuasion has tipped over into debates over conformity in certain areas of doctrine, discipline, worship, and ethics.
Controversies
Historical background
The effect of nationalising the Christian faith in England inevitably led to conflict between factions wishing to remain obedient to the
Pope, those wishing more radical reform, and those holding a middle ground. A range of
Presbyterian,
Congregational,
Baptist and other
Puritan views gained currency in the Church in England, Ireland, and Wales through the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Although the
Pilgrim Fathers felt compelled to leave for
New England, other
Puritans gained increasing ecclesiastical and political authority, while Royalists advocated
Arminianism and the
Divine Right of Kings. This conflict was one of the ultimate causes of the
English Civil War. The
Church of England, with the assistance of
Presbyterian Church of Scotland theologians and clergy, set down their newly developed
Calvinist doctrines in the
Westminster Confession of
1648, which was never formally adopted into church law. After the
Restoration of
1660 and the
1662 Act of Uniformity reinforced Cranmer's Anglicanism, those wishing to hold to the stricter views set out at Westminster either emigrated or covertly founded non-conformist Presbyterian, Congregational, or Baptist churches at home.
The
1700s saw the
Great Awakening, the
Methodist schism, and the identification of the
Evangelical party among the many conservatives who remained in the Anglican churches. The schism with the
Methodists in the
18th century had a theological asepct, particularly concerning the Methodist emphasis on personal salvation by faith alone, although
John Wesley continued to regard himself as a member of the Church of England. The same period also saw the emergence of the
High Church movement, which began to identify with the
Catholic heritage of Anglicanism, and to emphasise the importance of the
Eucharist and church tradition, while mostly rejecting the legitimacy of papal authority in England. The High Churchmen gave birth to the
Oxford Movement and
Anglo-Catholicism in the
1800s, which also saw the emergence of
Liberal Christianity across the
Protestant world.
The mid
19th century saw doctrinal debate between adherents of the
Oxford Movement and their
Low Church or
Evangelical opponents, though the most public conflict tended to involve more superficial matters such as the use of church ornaments, vestments, candles, and ceremonial (which were taken to indicate a sympathy with Roman Catholic doctrine), and the extent to which such matters ought to be restricted by the church authorities. These conflicts led to further schism, for example in the creation of the
Reformed Episcopal Church in North America.
Doctrinal controversies in the 20th century
William Temple, a leading figure of liberal social thought in Anglicanism in the early twentieth century.
Beginning in the sixteenth century, Anglicanism came under the influence of
Latitudinarianism, chiefly represented by the
Cambridge Platonists, who held that doctrinal orthodoxy was less important than applying rational rigour to the examination of theological propositions. The increasing influence of German
higher criticism of the Bible throughout the nineteenth century, however, resulted in growing doctrinal disagreement over the interpretation and application of scripture. This debate was intensified with the accumulation of insights derived from the natural and social sciences which tended to challenge literally-read biblical accounts. Figures such as
J.B. Lightfoot and
Brooke Foss Westcott helped mediate the transition from the theology of Hooker, Andrewes, and Taylor to accommodate these developments. In the early twentienth century, the liberal catholicism of
Charles Gore and
William Temple attempted to fuse the insights of modern biblical criticism with the theology expressed in the creeds and by the
Apostolic Fathers, but the following generations of scholars, such as
E.G. Selwyn and
John A.T. Robinson questioned what had hitherto been the sacrosanct status of these verities. As the century progressed, the conflict sharpened, chiefly finding its expression in the application of biblically-derived doctrine to social issues.
Anglicans have debated the relationship between doctrine and social issues since its origins, when the focus was chiefly on the church's proper relationship to the state. Later, in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the focus shifted to
slavery. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Anglicans fiercely debated the use of artificial
contraception by Christian couples, which was prohibited by church teaching. In
1930 the
Lambeth Conference took a lone stand among major Christian denominations at the time and permitted its use in some circumstances
[11](see also
Christian views on contraception).
The 20th century also saw an intense doctrinal debate among Anglicans over the
ordination of women, which led to schism, as well as to the conversion of some Anglican clergy to Roman Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy. Even today, there is no unanimity of doctrine or practice in the Anglican Communion as it relates to women's ordination. Finally, in the 1950s, 60s, and 70s Anglican churches wrestled with the issue of the
the remarriage of divorced persons, which was prohibited by dominical commandment. Once again, there is presently no unanimity of doctrine or practice.
Current controversies
The focus of doctrinal debate on issues of social theology has continued into the twenty-first century. Indeed, the total eclipse of issues of classical doctrine, such as confessions of faith, has been exemplified by the relatively non-controversial decisions by some Communion provinces to amend the Nicene Creed by dropping the
filioque clause, or supplementing the historic creeds with other affirmations of faith.
As of 2006, the two prominent doctrinal issues being actively debated in Anglican synods and convocations across the world are the
consecration of women as bishops and the place of gays and lesbians in the life of the church — specifically with respect to
same-sex unions and
ordination (see
Anglican views of homosexuality).
The consecration of bishops and the extension of sacraments to individuals based on gender or
sexual orientation would ordinarily be matters of concern to the synods of the autonomous provinces of the Communion. Insofar as they affect other provinces, it is by association — either the physical association between the individuals to whom the sacraments have been extended and those who oppose such extension; or the perceptual association of Anglicanism generally with such practices. Regardless, these issues have incited debate over the parameters of domestic autonomy in doctrinal matters in the absence of international consensus. Some dioceses and provinces have moved further than others can easily accept, and some conservative parishes within them have sought pastoral oversight from bishops of other dioceses or provinces, in contravention of traditional Anglican
polity (see
Anglican realignment). These developments have led some to call for a covenant to delimit the power of provinces to act on controversial issues independently, while others have called for a renewed commitment to comprehensiveness and tolerance of diverse practice.
See also
★
Anglican Eucharistic theology
★
History of Calvinist-Arminian debate
★
Anglican Marian theology
★
Anglican sacraments
★
Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral
★
Ritualist movement
★
Bangorian Controversy
★
Nonjuring schism
★
Christian theological controversy
Some contemporary advocates of Anglican doctrine
Anglo-Catholicism:
★
Kenneth Leech
★
Eric Lionel Mascall
★
Graham Leonard
★
Rowan Williams
Evangelicalism:
★
George Carey
★
Peter Jensen
★
J. I. Packer
★
John Stott
★
Tom Wright (theologian)
Liberalism:
★
Marcus Borg
★
David Edward Jenkins
★
John Shelby Spong
★
Desmond Tutu
References
1. Frederick P. Shriver, "Councils, Conferences, and Synods," in ''Anglicanism'', ed. by S. Sykes and J. Booty, 188-99 (London: SPCK, 1988), p. 189.
2. For an excellent short article on this concept, from which much of the content of this section is derived, see W. Taylor Stevenson, "Lex Orandi—Lex Credendi," in ''The Study of Anglicanism'', op cit., pp. 174-88
3. Ibid., 175
4. ''Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity'', III.8.13-15; and V.8.2. Hooker himself, however, never used the "stool" analogy.
5. For Newman’s discussion of doctrinal development, see his ''Essays on the Development of Doctrine'' (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1909 [originally published 1845])
6. Stevenson, 177-79
7. A phrase used by Frederick Denison Maurice in ''The Kingdom of Christ'', Vol. II (London: SCM, 1958 [originally published 1842]), 311.
8. Stephen Sykes, ''The Integrity of Anglicanism'' (London and Oxford: Mowbray & Co., 1978), 10ff.
9. Ibid., 8
10. Quoted, for example, by the 2004 Windsor report (accessed 2007-07-17), where it is sourced to the Lambeth Conference 1978, Report, p. 123.
11. O'Grady, Kathleen, 1999 ''"Contraception and religion, A short history"'' from The Encyclopedia of Women and World Religion (Serinity Young et al. eds). Macmillan, 1999, reprinted on http://www.mum.org/contrace.htm, retrieved August 15, 2006
External links
★
The history of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion.
★
LIBERAL - CONSERVATIVE DIVISIONS WITHIN THE EPISCOPAL CHURCH by Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, B.A. Robinson, 2000 updated 2003 Liberal-Conservative divisions in Anglicanism
العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
Español
