(Redirected from Anglican)
'Anglicanism' commonly refers to the beliefs and practices of the
Anglican Communion, the churches that are in
full communion with the
see of
Canterbury.
[1]
Terminology
The word ''Anglicanism'' was a
neologism in the 19th century, being constructed from the much older word ''Anglican''.
1 The word refers to the teachings and rites of Christians in communion with the
see of
Canterbury. It has come to be used to refer to the claim of those Churches to a unique religious and theological tradition apart from all other Christian churches, be they
Eastern Orthodox,
Roman Catholic, or
Protestant.
1
The word ''Anglican'' originates in ''ecclesia anglicana'', a
Medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 meaning "the
English Church".
[ ] As an adjective, ''Anglican'' is used to describe the people, institutions and churches as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the
Church of England.
1 As a noun, an ''Anglican'' is a member of a church in the
Anglican Communion but not all member churches of the Anglican Communion use the word ''Anglican'' in their names; some use the word ''
Episcopal'': for example, the
Episcopal Church in the United States of America and the
Scottish Episcopal Church. Though the use is disputed by the Anglican Communion, the word is claimed by followers of dissenting groups which have left the Communion or have been founded separately from it.
Anglicanism defined
Anglicanism, in its structures, theology and forms of worship, is understood as a distinct Christian tradition representing a middle ground between
Roman Catholicism and
Protestantism and, as such, is often referred to as being a ''
via media'' (or ''middle way'') between these traditions. The faith of Anglicans is founded in the
Scriptures and the
Gospels, the traditions of the
Apostolic Church, the historic
episcopate, and the early
Church Fathers. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as 'containing all things necessary for salvation' and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith. Anglicans understand the
Apostles' Creed as the baptismal symbol, and the
Nicene creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith.
Anglicans celebrate the traditional sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the
Holy Eucharist, also called
Holy Communion or the
Mass. The Eucharist is central to worship for most Anglicans as a communal offering of prayer and praise in which the life, death and resurrection of
Jesus Christ are recalled through prayer, reading of the Bible, singing, and the consecration of bread and wine as instituted at the
Last Supper. Whilst many Anglicans celebrate the Eucharist in similar ways to the Roman Catholic tradition a considerable degree of liturgical freedom is permitted and worship styles vary from simple to elaborate.
Unique to Anglicanism is the
Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. It was called "common prayer" because all Anglicans used to use it around the world. In 1549 the first Book of Common Prayer (BCP) was compiled by
Thomas Cranmer, who was then
Archbishop of Canterbury. Whilst it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Prayer Book is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together.
Anglicans uphold the Catholic and Apostolic faith and follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In practice Anglicans believe this is revealed in Holy Scripture and the catholic creeds, and interpret these in light of Christian tradition, scholarship, reason, and experience.
Origins and history
Origins
Anglicans traditionally date the origins of their Church to the arrival in the
Kingdom of Kent of the first Archbishop of Canterbury,
St Augustine, at the end of the
6th century. However, the origin of the Church in the
British Isles extends farther back. Christianity first gained a foothold during the
Roman occupation of
Britannia, possibly as early as the
1st century. The first recorded Christian martyr in Britain,
St Alban, is thought to have lived in the early
4th century, and his prominence in Anglican
hagiography is reflected in the number of
parish churches of which he is patron.
Restitutus (fl. 314) is known to have been the metropolitan
bishop of London and he is named as having attended the
Council of Arles. Irish Anglicans trace their origins back to the founding saint of Irish Christianity (
St Patrick) who was a Roman Briton and pre-dated Anglo-Saxon Christianity. Some Anglicans consider
Celtic Christianity a forerunner of their church, since the re-establishment of Christianity in some areas in the early sixth century came via
Irish and
Scottish missionaries, notably Patrick and
St Columba.
[2]
Reformation
Main articles: English Reformation
While Anglicans acknowledge that the repudiation of
papal authority by
Henry VIII of England led to the Church of England existing as a separate entity, they believe that it is in continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. Quite apart from its distinct customs and liturgies (such as the
Sarum rite), the organizational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the
Synod of Hertford in
672–
673 when the English bishops were for the first time able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry's
Act in Restraint of Appeals (
1533) and the
Acts of Supremacy (
1534) declared that the English crown was "the only
Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England, called ''Ecclesia Anglicana''," in order "to repress and extirpate all errors, heresies, and other enormities and abuses heretofore used in the same." The development of the
Thirty-Nine Articles of religion and the passage of the
Acts of Uniformity culminating in the
Elizabethan Religious Settlement resulted by the end of the seventeenth century in a Church that described itself as both Catholic and Reformed with the English monarch as its
Supreme Governor.
1 MacCulloch commenting on this situation says that it "has never subsequently dared to define its identity decisively as Protestant or Catholic, and has decided in the end that this is a virtue rather than a handicap."
[3]
King Henry VIII of England
The
English Reformation was initially driven by the dynastic goals of Henry VIII, who, in his quest for a
consort who would bear him a male heir, found it expedient to replace
papal authority with the supremacy of the English crown. The early legislation focused primarily on questions of temporal and spiritual supremacy. The introduction of the
Great Bible in
1538 brought a
vernacular translation of the Scriptures into churches. The
Dissolution of the Monasteries and the seizure of their assets by
1540 brought huge amounts of church land and property under the jurisdiction of the Crown, and ultimately into the hands of the English nobility. This simultaneously removed the greatest centres of loyalty to the pope and created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England under the rule of the Crown.
Cranmer, Parker, and Hooker
By
1549, the process of reforming the ancient national church was fully spurred on by the publication of the first vernacular prayer book, the
Book of Common Prayer, and the enforcement of the
Acts of Uniformity, establishing English as the language of public worship. The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the
Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, the principal author of the first Prayer Book, and continued by other thinkers such as
Matthew Parker,
Richard Hooker and
Lancelot Andrewes. Cranmer had worked as a diplomat in Europe and was aware of the ideas of the
Reformers Andreas Osiander,
Friedrich Myconius, as well as the Roman Catholic theologian
Desiderius Erasmus.
During the short reign of
Edward VI, Henry's son, Cranmer and others moved the Church of England significantly towards a more reformed position, which was reflected in the development of the second Prayer Book (
1552) and in the
Forty-Two Articles of Religion. This reform was reversed abruptly in the subsequent reign of
Queen Mary, a Roman Catholic who re-established communion with Rome.
In the
16th century, religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together and formed an important basis for extending and consolidating political power. Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with
treason and foreign invasion acting as real threats. When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne, a solution was thought to have been found. To minimise bloodshed over religion in her dominions, the
religious settlement between factions of Rome and Geneva was brought about. It was compellingly articulated in the development of the
1559 Book of Common Prayer, the Thirty-Nine Articles, the Ordinal, and the two Books of Homilies. These works, issued under Archbishop Matthew Parker, were to become the basis of all subsequent Anglican doctrine and self-identification.
1
The new version of the prayer book was substantially the same as Cranmer's earlier versions. It would become a source of great argument during the 17th century, but later revisions were not of great theological importance.
1 The Thirty-Nine Articles were based on the earlier work of Cranmer, being modelled after the Forty-Two Articles.
The altar in St. Mary Anglican Church, Redcliffe,
Bristol.
The bulk of the population acceded to Elizabeth's religious settlement with varying degrees of enthusiasm or resignation. It was imposed by law, and secured Parliamentary approval only by a narrow vote in which all the Roman Catholic bishops who were not imprisoned voted against. As well as those who continued to recognise papal supremacy, the more militant Protestants, or
Puritans as they became known, opposed it. Both groups were punished and disenfranchised in various ways and cracks in the façade of religious unity in England appeared.
King James Bible
Shortly, after coming to the throne
James I attempted to bring unity to the Church of England by instituting a commission consisting of scholars from all views within the Church to produce a unified and new translation of the bible free of
Calvinist and ''
Popish'' influence. The project was begun in 1604 and completed in 1611 becoming ''de facto'' the ''
Authorised Version'' in the Church of England and Anglican churches throughout the communion until the mid-20th century. The
New Testament was translated from the ''
Textus Receptus'' (Received Text) edition of the
Greek texts, so called because most extant texts of the time were in agreement with it.
The
Old Testament was translated from the
Masoretic Hebrew text, while the
Apocrypha was translated from the
Greek Septuagint (LXX). The work was done by 47 scholars working in six committees, two based in each of the
University of Oxford, the
University of Cambridge, and
Westminster. They worked on certain parts separately; then the drafts produced by each committee were compared and revised for harmony with each other.
This translation had a profound effect on
English literature. The works of famous authors such as
John Milton,
Herman Melville,
John Dryden and
William Wordsworth are deeply inspired by it.
The ''Authorised Version'' is often referred to as the ''King James Version'', particularly in the
United States. This despite the fact that
King James was not personally involved in the translation, though his authorization was legally necessary for the translation to begin, and he set out guidelines for the translation process, such as prohibiting footnotes and ensuring that Anglican positions were recognised on various points.
English Civil War
Cromwell and the corpse of Charles I
For the next century, through the reigns of
James I and
Charles I, and culminating in the
English Civil War and the protectorate of
Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far-reaching reform, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included a king,
Charles I and an Archbishop of Canterbury,
William Laud. For about a decade (1647-1660),
Christmas was another casualty as Cromwell abolished all
feasts and
festivals of the Church to rid England of outward signs of ''
Popishness''. Under
the Protectorate of the
Commonwealth of England from
1649 to
1660, Anglicanism was
disestablished,
presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced as an adjunct to the Episcopal system, the Articles were replaced with the
Westminster Confession, and the Book of Common Prayer was replaced by the
Directory of Public Worship.
Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform. In the midst of the apparent triumph of Calvinism, the 17th century brought forth a Golden Age of Anglicanism.
1 The
Caroline Divines, such as Andrews, Laud,
Herbert Thorndike,
Jeremy Taylor,
John Cosin,
Thomas Ken and others rejected Roman claims and refused to adopt the ways and beliefs of the Continental Protestants.
1 The historic episcopate was preserved. Truth was to be found in Scripture and the bishops and archbishops, which were to be bound to the traditions of the first four centuries of the Church's history. The role of reason in theology was affirmed.
1
Restoration and beyond
Main articles: English Restoration
Act of Toleration
With the
Restoration of
Charles II, Anglicanism too was restored in a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organization, taken for granted by the
Tudors, had to be abandoned.
The 1662 revision of the
Book of Common Prayer became the unifying text of the ruptured and repaired Church after the disaster that was the civil war.
With the
Act of Toleration enacted on
24 May 1689, Nonconformists had freedom of worship. That is, those
Protestants who dissented from the Church of England such as
Baptists,
Congregationalists and
Quakers but not Roman Catholics were allowed their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers, subject to acceptance of certain oaths of allegiance. It deliberately did not apply to Catholics and Unitarians and continued the existing social and political disabilities for dissenters, including their exclusion from political office. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and Roman Catholics and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than controlling it. Restrictions and continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the nineteenth century.
The Elizabethan Settlement failed in that it was never able to win the assent of the entire English people, let alone the other peoples of the British Isles, yet it experienced enormous success as this model of Anglican Christianity spread overseas.
Spread of Anglicanism outside England
A typical Anglican chapel
The history of Anglicanism since the
17th century has been one of greater geographical and cultural expansion and diversity, accompanied by a concomitant diversity of liturgical and theological profession and practice.
At the same time as the English reformation, the
Church of Ireland was separated from Rome and adopted articles of faith similar to England's Thirty-Nine Articles. However, unlike England, the Anglican church there was never able to capture the loyalty of the majority of the population (who still adhered to Roman Catholicism). As early as 1582, the
Scottish Episcopal Church was inaugurated when
James VI of Scotland sought to reintroduce bishops when the
Church of Scotland became fully
presbyterian (see
Scottish reformation). The Scottish Episcopal Church enabled the creation of the
Episcopal Church in the United States of America after the
American Revolution, by consecrating in
Aberdeen the first American bishop,
Samuel Seabury, who had been refused consecration by bishops in England, due to his inability to take the oath of allegiance to the
English crown prescribed in the
Order for the Consecration of Bishops. The polity and ecclesiology of the Scottish and American churches, as well as their daughter churches, thus tends to be distinct from those spawned by the English church - reflected, for example, in their looser conception of
provincial government, and their leadership by a
presiding bishop or
primus rather than by a
metropolitan or
archbishop. The names of the Scottish and American churches inspire the customary term ''Episcopalian'' for an Anglican; the term being used in these and other parts of the world.
''See also: , ''
At the time of the Reformation the four (now six) Welsh dioceses were all part of the Province of Canterbury, and remained so until 1920 when the
Church in Wales was created as a province of the Anglican Communion. The intense interest in the Christian faith which characterised the Welsh in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was not present in the sixteenth, and most Welsh people went along with the Reformation more because the English government was strong enough to impose its wishes in Wales, rather than out of any real conviction.
Anglicanism spread outside of the British Isles by means of emigration as well as missionary effort. English missionary organizations such as
USPG - then known as the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) and the
Church Missionary Society (CMS) were established in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to bring Anglican Christianity to the British colonies. By the nineteenth century, such missions were extended to other areas of the world. The liturgical and theological orientations of these missionary organizations were diverse. The SPG, for example, was influenced by the
Catholic Revival in the Church of England, while CMS was influenced by the
Evangelicalism of the earlier
Evangelical Revival. As a result, the piety, liturgy, and polity of the indigenous churches they established came to reflect these diverse orientations.
The growth of the twin "revivals" in nineteenth century Anglicanism — Evangelical and Catholic — were hugely influential. The Evangelical Revival informed important social movements such as
the abolition of slavery, child welfare legislation,
prohibition of alcohol, the development of
public health and
public education. It led to the creation of the
Church Army, an evangelical and social welfare association and informed piety and liturgy, most notably in the development of
Methodism. The Catholic Revival, arguably, had a more penetrating impact. It succeeded in transforming the liturgy of the Anglican Church, repositioning the
Eucharist as the central act of worship in place of the
daily offices, and reintroducing the use of vestments, ceremonial, and acts of piety (such as
Eucharistic adoration) that had long been prohibited in the English church and (to a certain extent) in its daughter churches. It had an impact on Anglican theology, through such
Oxford Movement figures as
John Henry Newman,
Edward Pusey, as well as the
Christian socialism of
Charles Gore Frederick Maurice.
Doctrine
Catholic and Reformed
In the time of Henry VIII rather than theological disagreement, the nature of Anglicanism was based on questions of jurisdiction - namely, the belief of the Crown that national churches should be autonomous. The effort to create a national church in legal continuity with its traditions, but inclusive of the doctrinal and liturgical belief of the
Reformers, was joined by a real concern to make the institution as hospitable as possible to people of different theological inclinations, so as to maintain social peace and cohesion. The result has been a movement with a distinctive self-image among Christian movements. The question often arises whether the Anglican Communion should be identified as a
Protestant or
Catholic church, or perhaps as a distinct branch of Christianity altogether.
The distinction between Protestant and Catholic, and the coherence of the two, is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican Churches and throughout the Anglican Communion by members themselves. Since the
Oxford Movement of the mid-19th century, many churches of the Communion have embraced and extended liturgical and pastoral practices dissimilar to most Reformed Protestant theology. This extends beyond the ceremony of
High Church services to even more theologically significant territory, such as sacramental theology (see
Anglican sacraments). While Anglo-Catholic practices, particularly liturgical ones, have become more common within the tradition over the last century, there remain many places where practices and beliefs remain on the more Protestant or Evangelical side.
Guiding principles
Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity
Unlike other Christian movements, Anglican doctrine is neither established by a
magisterium, nor derived from the theology of an
eponymous founder (such as
Lutheranism or
Calvinism), nor summed up in a confession of faith (beyond those of the
creeds). Instead, the earliest Anglican theological documents are its prayer books, which were themselves the products of profound theological reflection and compromise. It is within the
Book of Common Prayer that Anglican doctrine was originally expressed in the selection, arrangement, and composition of prayers and exhortations, the selection and arrangement of daily scripture readings (the
lectionary), and in the stipulation of the
rubrics for permissible
liturgical action and any variations in the prayers and exhortations. The principle of looking to the prayer books as a guide to the parameters of belief and practice is called by the Latin name ''
lex orandi, lex credendi'' ("the law of prayer is the law of belief"). Within the prayer books are the so-called fundamentals of Anglican doctrine: The
Apostles' and
Nicene Creeds, the scriptures (via the lectionary), the sacraments, daily prayer, the
catechism, and apostolic succession in the context of the historic threefold ministry.
Beyond the prayer books of various provinces, however, there are other important principles that have had an impact on Anglican belief. The earliest are contained within the ''
Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion'', as they appear in their final, 1604 form. Historically, Anglican clergy had to take an oath of subscription to the Articles, although the practice has become uncommon. Despite this, they have never been considered binding, but rather advisory. The degree to which each of the articles has remained influential varies. Arguably, the most influential of them has been Article VI on the "sufficiency of Scripture," which states that "Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation." This article has informed Anglican biblical
exegesis and
hermeneutics since earliest times.
Anglicans look for authority in their so-called "standard divines" (see below). Historically, the most influential of these - apart from Cranmer - has been the sixteenth century cleric and theologian
Richard Hooker. Hooker's description of Anglican authority as being derived primarily from Scripture, informed by reason (the intellect and the experience of God) and tradition (the practices and beliefs of the historical church), has influenced Anglican self-identity and doctrinal reflection perhaps more powerfully than any other formula. The analogy of the "three-legged stool" of scripture, reason and tradition is often incorrectly attributed to Hooker. Rather Hooker's description is a hierarchy of authority, with scripture as foundational, and reason and tradition as vitally important but secondary authorities.
Finally, the extension of Anglicanism into non-English cultures, the growing diversity of prayer books, and the increasing interest in ecumenical dialogue has led to further reflection on the parameters of Anglican identity. Many Anglicans look to the
Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888 as the "''sine qua non''" of Communal identity. In brief, the Quadrilateral's four points are the Holy Scriptures, as containing all things necessary to salvation; the Creeds (specifically, the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds), as the sufficient statement of Christian faith; the dominical sacraments of
Baptism and
Holy Communion; and the historic
episcopate.
Anglican divines
Within the Anglican tradition, there have been certain theological writers whose works have been considered standards for faith, doctrine, worship, and spirituality. While there is no authoritative list of these Anglican divines, there are some whose names would likely be found on most lists - those who are commemorated in
lesser feasts of the Church, and those whose works are frequently
anthologised.
[4]
The corpus produced by Anglican divines is diverse. What they have in common is a commitment to the faith as conveyed by Scripture and the Book of Common Prayer, thus regarding prayer and theology in a manner akin to that of the
Apostolic Fathers.
[4] On the whole, Anglican divines view the
via media of Anglicanism, not as a compromise, but "a positive position, witnessing to the universality of God and God's kingdom working through the fallible, earthly ''ecclesia Anglicana''."
[4] These theologians regard Scripture as interpreted through tradition and reason as authoritative in matters concerning salvation. Reason and tradition, indeed, is extant in and presupposed by Scripture, thus implying co-operation between God and humanity, God and nature, and between the sacred and secular. Faith is thus regarded as
incarnational, and authority as dispersed.
Among the early Anglican divines of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the names of Thomas Cranmer,
John Jewel, Richard Hooker,
Lancelot Andrewes, and
Jeremy Taylor predominate. The influential character of Hooker's ''
Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity'' cannot be overestimated. Published in 1593 and subsequently, Hooker's eight volume work is primarily a treatise on Church-state relations, but it deals comprehensively with issues of
biblical interpretation,
soteriology,
ethics, and
sanctification. Throughout the work, Hooker makes clear that theology involves prayer and is concerned with ultimate issues, and that theology is relevant to the social mission of the church.
The eighteenth century saw the rise of two important movements in Anglicanism:
Cambridge Platonism, with its mystical understanding of reason as the "candle of the Lord," and the
Evangelical Revival, with its emphasis on the personal experience of the
Holy Spirit. The Cambridge Platonist movement evolved into a school called
Latitudinarianism, which emphasised reason as the barometer of discernment and took a stance of indifference towards doctrinal and ecclesiological differences. The Evangelical Revival, influenced by such figures as
John Wesley and
Charles Simeon, re-emphasised the importance of
justification through faith and the consequent importance of personal conversion. Some in this movement, such as Wesley and
George Whitefield, took the message to the
United States, influencing the
First Great Awakening, and created an Anglo-American movement called
Methodism that would eventually break away, structurally, from the Anglican churches after the American Revolution.
By the nineteenth century, there was a renewed emphasis on the teachings of the earlier Anglican divines: Theologians such as
John Keble,
Edward Bouverie Pusey, and
John Henry Newman had widespread influence in the realm of polemics, homiletics, and theological and devotional works, not least because they largely repudiated the Old High Church tradition and replaced it with a dynamic appeal to antiquity which looked beyond the Reformers and Anglican formularies.
[7] Their work is largely credited with the development of the
Oxford Movement, which sought to reassert Catholic identity and practice in the Anglican Church. Through such works as ''
The Kingdom of Christ'',
Frederick Denison Maurice played a pivotal role in inaugurating another movement,
Christian socialism. In this, Maurice transformed Hooker's emphasis on the
incarnational nature of Anglican spirituality to an imperative for social justice. In the nineteenth century, Anglican biblical scholarship began to assume a distinct character, represented by the so-called "Cambridge triumvirate" of
Joseph Lightfoot,
F. J. A. Hort, and
Brooke Foss Westcott. Their orientation is best summed up by Lightfoot's observation that "Life which Christ is and which Christ communicates, the life which fills our whole beings as we realise its capacities, is active fellowship with God."
The twentieth century is marked by figures such as
Charles Gore, with his emphasis on natural revelation,
William Temple's focus on Christianity and society
J.A.T. Robinson's provocative discussions of deism and theism, Darwell Stone's and E L Mascall's thomism and defence of Catholic orthodoxy, and Kenneth Kirk's Moral Theology.
[8] Outside England, one sees such figures as
William Porcher DuBose,
William Meade, and
Charles Henry Brent in the United States. More recently, theologians such as Henry Chadwick.
John Macquarrie and
Don Cupitt, who rejected all the doctrines of historic Christianity in favour of a "Christian Buddism",
[8] Jeffrey John,
N.T. Wright, and
Rowan Williams have added to the mix.
Churchmanship
.
"Churchmanship" can be defined as the manifestation of theology in the realms of liturgy, piety and — to some extent — spirituality. Anglicanism diversity in this respect has tended to reflect the diversity in the tradition's Protestant and Catholic identity. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses and provinces may identify more with one or the other, or some balance of the two.
The range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century when some clergy were disciplined and even imprisoned on charges of
ritualism while, at the same time, others were criticised for engaging in public worship services with ministers of Reformed churches. Resistance to the growing acceptance and restoration of traditional Catholic ceremonial by the mainstream of Anglicanism ultimately led to the formation of small breakaway churches such as the
Free Church of England in England (1844) and the
Reformed Episcopal Church in North America (1873).
Anglo-Catholic (and some Broad Church) Anglicans celebrate public liturgy in a fashion that resembles that of the contemporary Roman Catholic Church, sometimes in an even more traditional manner (e.g., an "eastward orientation" at the altar). The Eucharist may be conducted by priest, deacon and
subdeacon dressed in their traditional vestments, using incense and
sanctus bells and with "secret prayers" said by the presiding celebrant. Such churches may practice
Eucharistic adoration, such as Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. In terms of personal piety, some Anglicans may recite the
rosary and
angelus, be involved in a devotional society dedicated to "Our Lady" (the
Blessed Virgin Mary) and seek the intercession of the saints. In recent years the prayer books of several provinces have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern
Conciliarism (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and
Oriental Orthodox elements in their liturgies, including introduction of the
Trisagion and deletion of the
filioque clause from the
Nicene Creed.
For their part, those
Evangelical (and some Broad Church) Anglicans who emphasise the more Protestant aspects of the Church stress the Reformation theme of
salvation by grace through faith. They emphasise the two dominical sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist, viewing the other five as "lesser rites". Some Evangelical Anglicans may even tend to take the inerrancy of Scripture literally, adopting the view of Article VI that it contains all things necessary to salvation in an explicit sense. Worship in churches influenced by these principles tends to be significantly less elaborate, with greater emphasis on the Liturgy of the Word (the reading of the scriptures, the sermon and the intercessory prayers). The Order for Holy Communion may be celebrated bi-weekly or monthly (in preference to the
daily offices), by ministers attired in
choir habit, or more regular clothes, rather than Eucharistic vestments. Ceremony may be in keeping with their view of the provisions of the controversial
Ornaments Rubric of the historic English prayer books — no candles, no incense, no bells and a minimum of manual action by the presiding celebrant (such as touching the elements at the
Words of Institution).
In recent decades there has been a growth of
charismatic worship among Anglicans. Both Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals have been affected by this movement such that it is not uncommon to find typically charismatic postures, music, and other themes evident during the services of otherwise Anglo-Catholic or Evangelical parishes.
The spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels. Many Anglicans locate themselves somewhere in the spectrum of the Broad Church tradition, and consider themselves an amalgam of Evangelical and Catholic. Such Anglicans stress that Anglicanism is the "''
via media''" (middle way) between the two major strains of Western Christianity. ''Via media'' may be understood as underscoring Anglicanism's preference for a communitarian and methodological approach to theological issues rather than relativism.
Practices: prayer and worship
:''see also''
Evensong and
Prayer of Humble Access
In Anglicanism, there is a distinction between Liturgy, which is the formal public and communal worship of the Church, and personal prayer and devotion, which may be public or private. The Liturgy is regulated by the prayer books and consists of the Holy Eucharist (some call it Holy Communion or Mass), the other Sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours.
Anglican worship: an overview
Anglican worship services are open to all visitors. Christian visitors from the Protestant, Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches will all find features of Anglican worship to be different: some will indeed find aspects of Anglican worship
defective,
offensive,
heretical and
blasphemous. This is the legacy of Christian
disunity. On the whole, most Christians would find much that is familiar in Anglican worship. The single most distinctive feature of Anglican worship that is unique amongst Christian worshippers is the use of the
Book of Common Prayer. No other Protestant church has anything similar nor are the use of Roman Catholic
missals. Even with the variants in use across the Anglican Communion, the Book of Common Prayer so defines an Anglican church that even those churches outside of the Communion - churches that may even have no historical link to the Communion - which call themselves Anglican will have identified themselves so because they use the Book of Common Prayer in any of its variants in the shaping of their worship services.
For other differences, a visitor from most mainline Protestant churches - the
Lutheran,
Presbyterian,
Methodist and even the
Baptist churches - may see little difference in a contemporary ''
low church'' Anglican service. But the ''
broad church'' and ''
high church'' Anglican service does depart from the norms of a Protestant service in the formality of the
liturgy. Especially, the use of
vestments will seem unusual to some Protestants; although this distinction will be absent in ''low church'' Anglican services. The presence of wine in the
Eucharist and the frequent celebration of the Eucharist would be of notice; although, again, ''low church'' Anglicans may offer Holy Communion less frequently and may offer grape juice. And until the mid-twentieth century, this difference was not as acute as the main Sunday service was
morning prayer as opposed to the Eucharist which has slowly became the standard form of worship in Anglican churches from the late nineteenth century onwards. And while only
baptised persons are eligible to receive communion
[10], in many Anglican Provinces all baptised Christians whether or not they have been baptised or confirmed in the Anglican church may receive communion. Unlike some Protestant churches, infant
baptism is the norm in Anglican churches although adults can be baptised as well. Anglicans only baptise once. Protestants
baptised as Christians outside of the Anglican church can be confirmed within the Anglican church but need not (nor would be) baptised again. An Anglican service will have readings from the Bible that are pre-set, standardised and unified throughout the Anglican Communion with readings following a common
lectionary that insures the entire Bible is read out loud in the church over a three year cycle: this is a practice not all Protestants follow. The Bible readings include the
Apocrypha. The
sermon or
homily may appear very short (even absent in some Anglican services such as
compline) to the ears of some Protestants: an Anglican sermon is usually about ten to twenty minutes in length. Set prayers are read in Anglican churches which to some Protestants used to extemporaneous prayer may seem formal. Prayer is through Jesus Christ which may differ from the practice in some Protestant churches. During
intercessory prayer - which may be unusual for some Protestants - there may be prayers for the dead in some Anglican churches. The observing feasts, fasts, and the lives of the saints will surprise some Protestants. The presence of figurative stained glass or painting or illustration including plaques and memorials on the walls of an Anglican church may surprise some Protestants. The hierarchical threefold order of ordained ministers (
deacons,
priests, and
bishops) which Anglicans view as connecting their Church to the early apostolic Church via an unbroken
apostolic succession is unusual for Protestants. As is the system of Anglican Church administration where the
diocese is the primary unit of governance and not the individual parish or denomination as a whole, while most Protestant forms of church governance and administration is
congregational. The practice of
monasticism and the presence of Anglican monks and Anglican nuns would seem odd to most Protestant visitors.
A visitor from a
Roman Catholic or
Orthodox church would view a ''low church'' Anglican service as very different but even the ''broad church'' and ''high church'' Anglican church services would have jarring anomalies to such a visitor. The number one difference would be the likely presence of female Anglican clergy; although women's ordination is not universal in the Anglican Communion. Throughout the Anglican Communion though is the presence of married clergy: all clergy including bishops can marry and
celibacy is not a requirement for Holy Orders. The service - especially the ''high church'' Anglican service would not appear too strange to the Roman Catholic visitor although parishioners during the service may sit on chairs or pews unlike some Orthodox services. Parishioners kneel, sit and stand much like they do in a Roman Catholic mass although genuflection and crossing one-self is less frequent. But Anglicans - especially ''broad church'' and ''high church'' Anglicans - do cross themselves and in much the same way as Roman Catholics. Unlike the Roman Catholic mass where the priest may say the mass alone without the presence of anyone else (a quorum of one), an Anglican priest requires the presence of at least one other (a quorum of two). The sacraments of bread and wine may be reserved and a presence candle will be lit in some Anglican churches. Unlike the Roman Catholic church, both bread and wine are always offered during communion in Anglican Eucharist services. In some provinces the Eucharist is inclusive (open) to all baptised Christians - inside and outside the Anglican Communion- which is a practice that may surprise a Roman Catholic or Orthodox visitor. Some Anglican churches will have confessionals and the priests will take the
Sacrament of Reconcilation. However, Anglicans focus heavily on two Dominical Sacraments,
Baptism and
Holy Communion, above the other
five. To the Roman Catholic visitor, the collegiate structure of the church in contrast with Roman Catholic centralization may seem unusual. There is no reference to the Bishop of Rome in an Anglican mass. The loose structure of the
Anglican Communion -unlike the
pope, the
Archbishop of Canterbury has no authority outside his province but is regarded as "first among equals" among bishops in the Anglican Communion - may seem strange to a Roman Catholic visitor.
Book of Common Prayer
The ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP) is the foundational prayer book of Anglicanism. The original was one of the instruments of the
English Reformation and was later to be adapted and revised in other countries where Anglicanism became established. The BCP replaced the various 'uses' or rites in Latin that had been used in different parts of the country with a single compact volume in the language of the people so that "now from henceforth all the Realm shall have but one use".
With British colonial expansion from the seventeenth century onwards, the Anglican church was planted across the globe. These churches at first used and then revised the use of the Prayer Book, until they, like their parent, produced prayer books which took into account the developments in liturgical study and practice in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which come under the general heading of the
Liturgical Movement.
Holy Eucharist
Anglicanism officially teaches the
Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration, to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves. The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology.
The classic Anglican aphorism with regard to this debate is found in a poem by
John Donne:
:He was the Word that spake it;
:He took the bread and brake it;
:and what that Word did make it;
:I do believe and take it.[11]
Anglican belief in the Eucharistic Sacrifice ("Sacrifice of the Mass") is set forth in the response
''Saepius officio'' of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to
Pope Leo XIII's Papal Encyclical
''Apostolicae curae''.
Anglicans and Roman Catholics declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the
Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation and the
Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement.
Sacraments
As befits its prevailing self-identity as a ''
via media'' or "middle path" of
Western Christianity, Anglican sacramental theology expresses elements in keeping with its status as a church in the
Catholic tradition, and a church of the
Reformation. With respect to sacramental theology, that Catholic heritage is perhaps most strongly asserted in the importance Anglicanism places on the
sacraments as a means of
grace,
sanctification, and
salvation as expressed in the church's
liturgy.
Of the seven sacraments, Anglicans recognise two as having been ordained by Christ and the five other acts are regarded variously as full sacraments by
Anglo-Catholic Anglicans or as "sacramental rites" by
evangelical Anglicans.
Altogether, the seven are:
Baptism,
Confession and absolution,
Holy Matrimony,
Holy Eucharist (also called Holy Communion or Mass),
Confirmation,
Holy Orders (also called Ordination), and
Anointing of the Sick (also called Unction.)
Liturgy of the Hours
All Anglican prayer books contain offices for
Morning Prayer (
Matins) and
Evening Prayer (Evensong). In many, if not most Anglican formularies, these offices are supplemented by forms of the
Little Hours, viz.
Prime and prayer during the day e.g. (
Terce,
Sext,
None, and
Compline).
In England, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and other Anglican provinces, the prayer book contains four offices:
★ Morning Prayer, corresponding to Matins and
Lauds
★ Prayer During the Day, roughly corresponding to the combination of Terce, Sext and None (Noonday Prayer in the USA)
★ Evening Prayer, corresponding to
Vespers
★ Compline
In addition, most prayer books include a section of prayers and devotions for family use. In the US, these offices are further supplemented by an "Order of Worship for the Evening," a prelude to or an abbreviated form of Evensong, partly taken from a Jewish Lucernaria service. In the United Kingdom, the publication of ''Daily Prayer'', the third volume of
Common Worship was published in
2005. It retains the services for Morning and Evening Prayer and Compline, and includes a section entitled "Prayer during the Day." The 1989 A New Zealand Prayer Book provides different outlines for Matins and Evensong on each day of the week, as well as "Midday Prayer," "Night Prayer," and "Family Prayer."
The prayer offices have an important place in Anglican history. Prior to the
Catholic revival of the nineteenth century, which eventually restored
Holy Eucharist as the principle Sunday liturgy, Matins and Evensong were the usual expressions of common worship. This nurtured a tradition of distinctive Anglican
plainsong applied to the
canticles and
psalms used at the offices.
Some Anglican monastic communities have a Daily Office based on that of the Book of Common Prayer but with additional antiphons, canticles, etc., for specific days of the week, specific Psalms, etc. See, for example,
Order of the Holy Cross [1] and Order of St. Helena, editors, ''A Monastic Breviary'' (Wilton, Conn.: Morehouse-Barlow, 1976). The All Saints Sisters of the Poor
[2], with convents in Catonsville, Md., and elsewhere, use an elaborated version of the Anglican Daily Office. The
Society of St. Francis publishes Celebrating Common Prayer, which has become especially popular for use among Anglicans.
Some
Anglo-Catholic groups use the
Anglican Breviary, which is an adaptation of the Pre-Vatican II Roman Rite and
Sarum Rite, along with supplemental material from cognate western sources, to provide such things as a common of Octaves, a common of Holy Women, and other additional material. It contains all eight historic offices in one volume, rather than the traditional four, but does not contain the
Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which was bound along with many editions of the ''Breviarium Romanum''.
Organization and mission of the Church
Principles of governance
Contrary to popular misconception, the British monarch is not the constitutional "Head" but in law "The Supreme Governor" of the Church of England, nor does he or she have any role in provinces outside England and Wales. The role of the crown in the Church of England is practically limited to the appointment of bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury. This process is accomplished through collaboration with and consent of ecclesial representatives ''(see
Ecclesiastical Commissioners)''. The monarch has no constitutional role in Anglican churches in other parts of the world, although the prayer books of several countries where she is head of state maintain prayers for her as sovereign.
A characteristic of Anglicanism is that it has no international juridical authority. All thirty-nine provinces of the Anglican Communion are independent, each with their own
primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or South Asia), or geographical regions (such as Vanuatu and Solomon Islands) etc. Within these Communion provinces may exist subdivisions called
ecclesiastical provinces, under the jurisdiction of a metropolitan. All provinces of the Anglican Communion consist of
dioceses, each under the jurisdiction of a
bishop. In the Anglican tradition, bishops must be consecrated according to the strictures of
apostolic succession, which Anglicans consider one of the marks of
catholicity. Apart from bishops, there are two other orders of ordained ministry:
deacon and
priest. No requirement is made for
clerical celibacy and women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces, as priests in some, and as bishops in a few provinces.
Anglican religious orders and communities, suppressed in England during the Reformation, have re-emerged since the mid-nineteenth century, and now have an international presence and influence.
Government in the Anglican Communion is
synodical, consisting of three houses of
laity (usually elected parish representatives),
clergy, and bishops. National, provincial, and diocesan synods maintain different scopes of authority, depending on their
canons and constitutions. Anglicanism is not
congregational in its polity: It is the diocese, not the parish church, which is the smallest unit of authority in the church, and bishops must give their assent to resolutions passed by synods. ''(See
Episcopal polity).
Focus of Unity: The Archbishop of Canterbury
Arms of the
see of Canterbury.
The
Archbishop of Canterbury has a precedence of honor over the other primates of the Anglican Communion, and for a province to be considered a part of the Communion means specifically to be in communion with the
See of
Canterbury. The Archbishop is, therefore recognised as ''
primus inter pares'', or first amongst equals even though he does not exercise any direct authority in any
province outside England, of which he is chief primate. The current Archbishop of Canterbury
as of 2007,
Rowan Williams is the first appointed from outside the Church of England since the Reformation: he was the former
Archbishop of Wales, .
As "spiritual head" of the Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury maintains a certain moral authority, and has the right to determine which churches will be in communion with his
See. He hosts and chairs the
Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion bishops, as well as the
Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting. He acts as president of the secretariat of the Anglican Communion Office, and its deliberative body, the
Anglican Consultative Council.
Instruments of unity
The Anglican Communion has no international juridical organization. All international bodies are consultative and collaborative, and their resolutions are not legally binding on the independent provinces of the Communion. There are three international bodies of note.
# The
Lambeth Conference is the oldest international consultation. It was first convened by Archbishop
Charles Longley in
1867 as a vehicle for bishops of the Communion to "discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action." Since then, it has been held roughly every ten years. Invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
# The
Anglican Consultative Council was created by a
1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets
biennially. The council consists of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president.
# The
Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop
Donald Coggan in
1978 as a forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation."
Ordained ministry
An Anglican priest in Eucharistic
vestments. Anglican clergy often vest in a similar way to Roman Catholic clergy, especially at the
Eucharist. While the
chasuble is considered to be more "high church" by some Anglicans, the
alb and
stole have become common vesture.
Like the
Orthodox and
Roman Catholic churches (but unlike most Protestant churches), the Anglican Communion maintains the threefold ministry of deacons, priests, and bishops.
Episcopate
The
bishops, who possess the fullness of Christian priesthood, are the successors of the
Apostles. The primates, archbishops and
metropolitans are all bishops and members of the
historical episcopate, and derive their authority through
apostolic succession — an unbroken line of bishops that can be traced back to the apostles of
Jesus.
Presbyterate (Priesthood)
Bishops are assisted by the clergy. The "
clergy" is a term applied widely across many religions. While a
priest might be
Roman Catholic,
Anglican, or
Orthodox Christian and a
minister might belong to any Protestant church, both terms are used in Anglicanism to refer to those who have taken Holy Orders.
An
archdeacon is a priest responsible for administration of an archdeaconry, which is the principal subdivision of a
diocese. In the
Church of England the position of Archdeacon can only be held by an ordained Priest who has been practicing for 6 years; in some other parts of the Anglican Communion the position can be held by a
deacon as well. In parts of the Anglican Communion where women cannot be ordained as priests or
bishops, the position of Archdeacon is effectively the most senior office a clergywoman can be promoted to.
Parishes within a diocese are normally in the charge of a priest, known as the parish priest, pastor, rector, or in some cases, vicar. A
curate may assist the rector at a parish. Priests may perform many functions not directly connected with ordinary pastoral activity, such as study, research, teaching or office work. They may serve as a
chaplain, a
canon (a priest who is specifically attached to a
cathedral), prebendary (a type of canon),
dean (a head canon), or subdean (a dean's deputy).
The Roman Catholic and most Eastern Orthodox Churches do not recognise the validity of Anglican ordinations and treat convert clergy as laypeople. In contrast, the Anglican Communion recognises Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox ordinations as valid. Outside the Anglican Communion, Anglican ordinations (at least of male priests) are recognised by the
Old Catholics and various
Independent Catholic Churches.
Diaconate
In Anglican churches, deacons often work directly in ministry to the marginalised inside and outside the church: the poor, the sick, the hungry, the imprisoned. Unlike Orthodox and Roman Catholic deacons who may be married only before ordination, deacons are permitted to marry freely both before and after ordination, as are priests. Most deacons are preparing for priesthood, and usually only remain as deacons for about a year before being ordained priests. However, there are some deacons who remain deacons. Many provinces of the
Anglican Communion ordain both women and men as deacons. Many of those provinces that ordain women to the priesthood previously allowed them to be ordained only to the diaconate. The effect of this was the creation of a large and overwhelmingly female diaconate for a time, as most men proceeded to be ordained priest after a short time as a deacon.
Deacons may
baptise and in some dioceses are granted licenses to
solemnize matrimony, usually under the instruction of their parish priest and
bishop. They commonly officiate at
Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. Deacons are not permitted to preside at the
eucharist (but can lead worship with the distribution of already-consecrated Communion where this is permitted),
absolve sins or
pronounce a blessing in the name of the Church
[3], (however, these last two are often permitted in an indirect form). It is the prohibition against deacons pronouncing a blessing in the Church's name that leads some in the church to believe that a deacon cannot properly solemnize matrimony. In most cases, deacons minister alongside other clergy.
Laity
All baptised members of the Church are called Christian
faithful, truly equal in dignity and in the work to build the Church. Some of the non-ordained exercise formal, public ministry in the name of the church, often on a full time and life-long basis.
readers,
churchwardens,
vergers and
sextons are auxiliaries who do not hold holy orders.
Religious life
A small yet influential aspect of Anglicanism is its
religious orders and communities. Shortly after the beginning of the
Catholic Revival in the Church of England, there was a renewal of interest in re-establishing religious and monastic orders and communities. One of Henry VIII's earliest acts was their dissolution and seizure of their assets. In
1841 Marion Rebecca Hughes became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the
Province of Canterbury since the Reformation. In
1848,
Priscilla Lydia Sellon became the superior of the
Society of the Most Holy Trinity at Devonport, the first organised religious order. Sellon is called "the restorer, after three centuries, of the religious life in the Church of England."
[12] For the next one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated throughout the world, becoming a numerically small but disproportionately influential feature of global Anglicanism.
Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of
religious. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to
God under the
vows of
poverty,
chastity and
obedience (or in
Benedictine communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practicing a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the
Breviary in choir, along with a daily
Eucharist, plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combining aspects of the contemplative orders and the active orders remains to this day a hallmark of Anglican religious life. Another distinctive feature of Anglican religious life is the existence of some mixed-gender communities.
Since the
1960s there has been a sharp decline in the number of professed religious in most parts of the Anglican Communion, especially in
North America,
Europe, and
Australia. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the
20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still several thousand Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world, and religious life in many parts of the Communion - especially in developing nations - flourishes.
The most significant growth has been in the
Melanesian countries of the
Solomon Islands,
Vanuatu and
Papua New Guinea. The
Melanesian Brotherhood, founded at
Tabalia,
Guadalcanal, in
1925 by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450
brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the
Philippines and the United Kingdom. The
Sisters of the Church, started by Mother
Emily Ayckbowm in
England in
1870, has more
sisters in the Solomons than all their other communities. The
Community of the Sisters of Melanesia, started in
1980 by
Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands. The
Society of Saint Francis, founded as a union of various
Franciscan orders in the
1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid 20s — vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers, at least, will leave and marry in due course — making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. Growth of religious orders, especially for women, is marked in certain parts of
Africa.
Worldwide distribution
A world map showing the Provinces of the 'Anglican Communion' (Blue). Shown are the Churches in full communion with the Anglican Church: The Nordic Lutheran churches of the
Porvoo Communion (Green), and the
Old Catholic Churches in the
Utrecht Union (Red).
Anglicanism represents the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the
Eastern Orthodox Churches. The number of Anglicans in the world is approximately 77 million.
[13] The 11 provinces in Africa saw explosive growth in the last two decades. They now include 36.7 million members, more Anglicans than there are in England. England remains the largest single Anglican province, with 26 million members. In most industrialised countries, church attendance has decreased since the 19th century. Anglicanism's presence in the rest of the world is due to the work of missionaries.
The
Church of England has been a church of
missionaries since the seventeenth century when the Church first left English shores with colonists who founded what would become the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa and established Anglican churches. For example, an Anglican chaplain -
Robert Wolfall - with
Martin Frobisher's
Arctic expedition celebrated the Eucharist in 1578 in
Frobisher Bay. The first Anglican church in the Americas was built at
Jamestown,
Virginia, in 1607. By the eighteenth century, missionaries worked to establish Anglican churches in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The great Church of England missionary societies were founded; for example the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK) in 1698.
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) in 1701, and the
Church Mission Society (CMS) in 1799. The nineteenth century saw the founding and expansion of social oriented evangelism with societies such as the
Church Pastoral Aid Society (CPAS) in 1836,
Mission to Seafarers in 1856,
Mothers' Union in 1876 and
Church Army in 1882 all carrying out a personal form of evangelism. The twentieth century saw the Church of England developing new forms of evangelism such as the
Alpha course in 1990 which was developed and propagated from
Holy Trinity Brompton Church in
London. In the twenty-first century, there has been renewed effort to reach children and youth.
Fresh expressions is a Church of England missionary initiative to youth begun in 2005, and has ministries at a
skate park[14] through the efforts of
St George's Church,
Benfleet,
Essex -
Diocese of Chelmsford - or youth groups with evocative names, like the C.L.A.W (Christ Little Angels - Whatever!) youth group at
Coventry Cathedral. And, for the un-churched who don't actually wish to visit a bricks and mortar church there are Internet ministries such as the
Diocese of Oxford's on-line Anglican
i-Church which appeared on the web in 2005.
Ecumenism
Anglican interest in
ecumenical dialogue can be traced back to the time of the Reformation and dialogues with both Orthodox and Lutheran churches in the sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, with the rise of the Oxford Movement, there arose greater concern for reunion of the churches of "Catholic confession." This desire to work towards full
communion with other denominations led to the development of the
Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, approved by the Third
Lambeth Conference of 1888. The four points (the sufficiency of scripture, the historic creeds, the two dominical sacraments, and the historic episcopate) were proposed as a basis for discussion, although they have frequently been taken as a non-negotiable bottom-line for reunion.
Role of the Church in civilization
Anglican concern with broader issues of social justice can be traced to its earliest divines. Richard Hooker, for instance, wrote that "God hath created nothing simply for itself, but each thing in all things, and of every thing each part in other have such interest, that in the whole world nothing is found whereunto any thing created can say, 'I need thee not.'" This, and related statements, reflect the deep thread of
incarnational theology running through Anglican social thought - a theology which sees God, nature, and humanity in dynamic interaction, and the interpenetration of the secular and the sacred in the make-up of the cosmos. Such theology is informed by a traditional English spiritual ethos, rooted in Celtic Christianity and reinforced by Anglicanism's origins as an
established church, bound up by its structure in the life and interests of civil society.
Repeatedly, throughout Anglican history, this principle has reasserted itself in movements of social justice. For instance, in the eighteenth century the influential Evangelical Anglican
William Wilberforce, along with others, campaigned against the slave trade. In the nineteenth century, the dominant issues concerned the adverse effects of industrialization. The usual Anglican response was to focus on education and give support to 'The National Society for the Education of the Children of the Poor in the principles of the Church of England'.
[15] Lord Shaftesbury, a devout Evangelical, campaigned to improve the conditions in factories, in mines, for chimney sweeps, and for the education of the very poor. For years he was chairman of the Ragged School Board. Frederick Denison Maurice was a leading figure advocating reform , founding so-called "producer's co-operatives" and the
Working Men's College. His work was instrumental in the establishment of the
Christian socialist movement, although he himself was not in any real sense a socialist but, "a Tory paternalist with the unusual desire to theories his acceptance of the traditional obligation to help the poor",
[16] influenced Anglo-Catholics such as Charles Gore, who wrote that, "the principle of the incarnation is denied unless the Christian spirit can be allowed to concern itself with everything that interests and touches human life." Anglican focus on labor issues culminated in the work of
William Temple in the
1930s and
1940s.
Pacifism
A question of whether or not Christianity is a pacifist religion has remained a matter of debate for Anglicans. In
1937, the
Anglican Pacifist Fellowship emerged as a distinct reform organization, seeking to make pacifism a clearly defined part of Anglican theology. The group rapidly gained popularity amongst Anglican intellectuals, including
Vera Brittain,
Evelyn Underhill and former British political leader
George Lansbury. Furthermore, the Reverend
Dick Sheppard, who during the
1930s was one of Britain's most famous Anglican priests due to his landmark sermon broadcasts for
BBC radio, founded the
Peace Pledge Union a
secular pacifist organization for the non-religious that gained considerable support throughout the
1930s.
Whilst never actively endorsed by the Anglican Church, many Anglicans unofficially have adopted the Augustinian "
Just War" doctrine. The
Anglican Pacifist Fellowship remain highly active throughout the Anglican world. It rejects this doctrine of "just war" and seeks to reform the Church by reintroducing the
pacifism inherent in the beliefs of many of the earliest Christians and present in their interpretation of Christ's
Sermon on the Mount.
Confusing the matter was the fact that the 37th Article of Religion in the Book of Common Prayer states that "it is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars." Therefore, the Lambeth Council in the modern era has sought to provide a clearer position by repudiating modern war and developed a statement that has been affirmed at each subsequent meeting of the Council. This statement was strongly reasserted when "the 67th General Convention of the Episcopal Church reaffirms the statement made by the Anglican Bishops assembled at Lambeth in 1978 and adopted by the 66th General Convention of the Episcopal Church in 1979, calling "Christian people everywhere ... to engage themselves in non-violent action for justice and peace and to support others so engaged, recognizing that such action will be controversial and may be personally very costly... this General Convention, in obedience to this call, urges all members of this Church to support by prayer and by such other means as they deem appropriate, those who engaged in such non-violent action, and particularly those who suffer for conscience' sake as a result; and be it further Resolved, that this General Convention calls upon all members of this Church seriously to consider the implications for their own lives of this call to resist war and work for peace for their own lives."
After World War II
The focus on other social issues became increasingly diffuse after the
Second World War. On the one hand, the growing independence and strength of Anglican churches in the global south brought new emphasis to issues of global poverty, the inequitable distribution of resources, and the lingering effects of colonialism. In this regard, figures such as
Desmond Tutu and
Ted Scott were instrumental in mobilizing Anglicans worldwide against the
apartheid policies of
South Africa. Rapid social change in the industrialised world during the twentieth century compelled the church to examine issues of gender, sexuality and marriage.
These changes led to Lambeth Conference resolutions countenancing
contraception and the
remarriage of divorced persons. They led to most provinces approving the
ordination of women. In more recent years it has led some jurisdictions to permit the ordination of people in same-sex relationships and to authorise rites for the blessing of same-sex unions (see
Anglican views of homosexuality). More conservative elements within Anglicanism (primarily African churches and factions within North American Anglicanism) are opposed to these changes. Some liberal and moderate Anglicans see this opposition as representing a new
fundamentalism within Anglicanism. The lack of social consensus among and within provinces of diverse cultural traditions has resulted in considerable conflict and even schism concerning some or all of these developments (see
Anglican realignment).
These latter trends reflect a countervailing tendency in Anglicanism towards insularity, reinforced perhaps by the "big tent" nature of the movement, which seeks to be comprehensive of various views and tendencies. The insularity and complacency of the early established
Church of England has tended to influence Anglican self-identity, and inhibit engagement with the broader society in favour of internal debate and dialogue. Nonetheless, there is significantly greater cohesion among Anglicans when they turn their attention outward. Anglicans worldwide are active in many areas of social and environmental concern.
References
1. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church by F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor) Oxford University Press, USA; 3 edition p.65 (March 13, 1997)
2. The History of Christianity, Volume I: "The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation", , Justo L., González, Harper, 1984,
3. The Later Reformation in England 1547-1603, , Diarmaid, MacCulloch, Macmillan, 1990,
4. The Study of Anglicanism, , John, Booty, , ,
5. The Study of Anglicanism, , John, Booty, , ,
6. The Study of Anglicanism, , John, Booty, , ,
7. The Oxford Movement in Context - Anglican High Churchmanship, 1760 – 1857, , P.B., Nockles, CUP, 1994,
8. The Panther and the Hind — A Theological History of Anglicanism, , A, Nichols, Clark, 1993,
9. The Panther and the Hind — A Theological History of Anglicanism, , A, Nichols, Clark, 1993,
10.
11. Donne, John. Divine Poems—On the Sacrament, (Flesher's Edition) http://www.giga-usa.com/quotes/topics/doctrine_t001.htm
12. Pricilla Lydia Sellon, , Thomas J., Williams, SPCK, 1950,
13. Major Branches of Religions
14. Legacy XS Youth Centre & Skatepark, St. George's, Benfleet
15. Churchmen and the Condition of England 1832–1885, , G, Kitson Clark, Methuen, 1973,
16. Church and Society in England 1770 – 1970, , E R, Norman, Clarendon Press, 1976,
Further reading
★
The Call to the Cloister: Religious Communities and kindred bodies in the Anglican Communion, , Peter F, Anson, SPCK, 1955,
★ Hein, David, ed. (1991) ''Readings in Anglican Spirituality''. Cincinnati: Forward Movement.
★
The Episcopalians, Hein, David, and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr., , , Church Publishing, 2005,
★
The development of the Anglican Liturgy, 1662-1980, , R.C.D., Jasper, SPCK, 1989,
★
Anglicanism, More and Cross, , , , ,
★
Anglicanism, , Stephen, Neill, , ,
★
The Panther and the Hind: A Theological History fo Anglicanism, , Aidan, Nichols, T&T Clark, 1993,
★
Anglican Difficulties: A New Syllabus of Errors, , Edward, Norman, Morehouse, 2004,
★
The Transformation of Anglicanism: From State Church to Global Community, , William L., Sachs, Cambridge University Press, 1993,
★
The Study of Anglicanism, Sykes, Stephen, Booty, John, & Knight, Jonathan, (eds.), , , Fortress Press, ,
★
Doctrine in the Church of England, , William, Temple, , ,
External links
★
Anglican Communion - The official site of the Anglican Communion.
★
What it means to be an Anglican: Official Church of England site
★
Anglican Historical Texts
★
Anglicans Online - An unofficial site of the Anglican Communion. One of the biggest resources of Anglicanism in the world.
★
Anglicanism: ReligionFacts.com - Articles on Anglican history, ritual, and organization, plus an image gallery of people and places.
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