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'Alchemy in Islam' differs from traditional alchemy in certain ways. In Islam, alchemy means the early chemical investigation of nature in general, much like chemistry. The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word الكيمياء ''al-kimia''.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Arab Empire and the Islamic civilization. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy as it was better documented; indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic translations.
Alchemy and chemistry often overlapped in Islamic alchemy. While Muslim chemists and alchemists were the first to employ the experimental method (like chemistry), they were also the first to develop theories on the transmutation of metals and the creation of life in the laboratory (like alchemy), though these theories were rejected by later Muslim chemists.

Contents

Overview

Contributions to alchemy

Beginning of chemistry

Laboratory apparatus

Alembic

Conical measure

Hydrostatic balance

Laboratory flask

Pycnometer

Steam distillation

Steelyard

Retort

Thermometer

Chemical products

Distilled alcohol

Essential oil

Kerosene

Kerosene lamp

Medicinal substances

Petrol

Purified saltpetre

Drinking products

Coffee

Soft drink

Syrups

Hygiene products

Cosmetics

Hard soap

Perfumery

Shampoo

See also

References

Overview

Contributions to alchemy

The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Islamic alchemists such as al-Razi (Latinized as Rasis or Rhazes) and Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latin Geber) contributed key chemical discoveries, such as the technique of distillation (the words ''elixir'', ''alembic'' and ''alcohol'' are of Arabic origin), the muriatic (hydrochloric), sulfuric, and nitric acids, soda, potash, and more. (From the Arabic names of the last two substances, ''al-natrun'' and ''al-qalīy'', Latinized into ''Natrium'' and ''Kalium'', come the modern symbols for sodium and potassium.) The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.
Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism.
The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Arabic جابر إبن حيان, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber). He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. According to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':

Beginning of chemistry

An early experimental scientific method for chemistry began emerging among early Muslim chemists. The first and most influential was the 9th century Arab chemist, Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan), who some consider the father of chemistry,^[1][2]Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. ''The Independent''. for introducing the experimental method, alembic, still, retort, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, and filtration.
Al-Kindi, who was a chemist and an opponent of alchemy, was the first to debunk the theory of the transmutation of metals into more precious metals such as gold or silver.^[3] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī^[4] and Avicenna^[5] were also opponents of this theory. Another influential Muslim chemist was al-Razi, who first distilled petroleum, invented kerosene and kerosene lamps, soap bars and modern recipes for soap, and antiseptics. Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.^[6] Alexander von Humboldt regarded the Muslim chemists as the founders of chemistry.^[7]
Will Durant wrote in ''The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith'':
Robert Briffault wrote in ''The Making of Humanity'':
Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
Geber's writings became more widely known in Europe through the Latin writings of a pseudo-Geber, an anonymous alchemist born in 14th century Spain, who translated Geber's books into Latin and wrote some of his own books under the pen name of "Geber".

Laboratory apparatus

Alembic

Will Durant wrote in ''The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith'':

Conical measure

During his experiments on physics in the early 11th century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the conical measure,^[8] in order to find the ratio between the weight of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately measure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding metals, which are very close to modern measurements.^[9]

Hydrostatic balance

The hydrostatic balance was invented by al-Khazini in 1121.Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 346.

Laboratory flask

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the laboratory flask in the early 11th century.

Pycnometer

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī also invented the pycnometer in the early 11th century.

Steam distillation

Distillation was known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but chemists during the Islamic Golden Age made significant advances to the techniques of distillation and developed several different variations of it.
In particular, steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.

Steelyard

The steelyard was also invented by al-Khazini in 1121.

Retort

The chemical retort used for distillation was invented by Muslim scientists, and was later introduced to the West by 1570.^[10]

Thermometer

Avicenna was the first to employ an air thermometer in his experiments on physics.^[11]

Chemical products

Geber, the father of chemistry, invented the alembic still and many chemicals, including distilled alcohol, and established the perfume industry.

Distilled alcohol

Muslim chemists produced distilled alcohol from the 8th century and manufactured them on a large scale for use in chemistry and medicine from at least the 10th century.Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
Ahmad Y Hassan wrote:

Essential oil

Essential oils were first produced by Avicenna in the early 11th century, using steam distillation, giving rise to aromatherapy.Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.

Kerosene

Kerosene was produced from the distillation of petroleum and was first described by al-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th century Baghdad. In his ''Kitab al-Asrar'' (''Book of Secrets''), he described two methods for the production of kerosene. One method involved using clay as an absorbent, while the other method involved using ammonium chloride (''sal ammoniac'').Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", ''Saudi Aramco World'', January-February 1995, p. 20-27.

Kerosene lamp

Al-Razi described the first kerosene lamps (''naffatah'') used for heating and lighting in his ''Kitab al-Asrar'' (''Book of Secrets'').

Medicinal substances

Muslim chemists and physicians discovered and produced at least 2,000 medicinal substances for use in medicine and the pharmaceutical sciences.^[12]

Petrol

Muslim chemists were the first to produce petrol from crude oil, using the process of distillation.^[13]

Purified saltpetre

Potassium nitrate (saltpetre) was known to the Arabs in an early time as it was known to Khalid ibn Yazid (d. 709) and was known under various names, it is used as a flux in metallurgical operations and for producing nitric acid and aqua regia. Recipes for these uses are found in the works of Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber, d. 815), Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes, d. 932) and other alchemists. Arabs were the first to purify saltpeter to the weapons-grade purity as potassium nitrate must be purified to be used effectively. There are two celebrated works which described the purification process: one is by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his book ''Al-Muqaddimat'', and the other is by Hassan al-Rammah in his book ''al-furusiyya wa al-manasib al-harbiyya''.^[14][15]
A complete gunpowder recipe, which uses purified saltpetre for the first time, exists in a 10th century Arabic manuscript.^[16] In another manuscript from the 10th century there is a full description of gunpowder and its use in cannons.^[17]

Drinking products

Coffee

An Arab named Khalid was tending his goats in the Kaffa region of Ethiopia, when he noticed his animals became livelier after eating a certain berry. He boiled the berries to make the first coffee. Certainly the first record of the drink is of beans exported from Yemen to Ethiopia where Sufis drank it to stay awake all night to pray on special occasions. By the late 15th century, it had arrived in Makkah and Turkey from where it made its way to Venice in 1645. It was brought to England in 1650 by a Greek named Pasqua Rosee who opened the first coffee house in Lombard Street in the City of London. The Arabic ''qahwa'' became the Turkish ''kahve'', then the Italian ''caffè'', and then English ''coffee''.^[18]

Soft drink

Sherbet, the first juiced soft drink, made of crushed fruit, herbs, or flowers, has long existed as one of the most popular beverages from and of the Muslim world, winning over Western figures such as Lord Byron. Muslims developed a variety of juices to make their ''sharab'', an Arabic word from which the Italian sorbetto, French sorbet and English sherbet were derived. Today, this juice is known by a multitude of names, is associated with numerous cultural traditions, and is produced by countries ranging from India to the United States of America.The World's First Soft Drink. 1001 Inventions, 2006.

Syrups

The medieval Muslim sources contain many recipes for drink syrups that can be kept outside the refrigerator for weeks or months.

Hygiene products

Cosmetics

Early forms of cosmetics had been used since ancient times, but these were usually created primarily for the purpose of beautification and often used harmful substances. This changed with Muslim cosmetologists who emphasized hygiene, due to religious requirements, and invented various healthy and hygienic cosmetics that are still used today.

Hard soap

Due to washing and bathing being religious requirements for Muslims, they perfected the modern recipe for soap which is still used today, and invented the modern soap bar. Earlier forms of soap were used since the ancient Egyptians, but it wasn't until the Middle Ages when the Arabs combined vegetable oils (such as olive oil) with sodium hydroxide and aromatics such as thyme oil to develop the modern formula for soap.
Sodium Lye (''Al-Soda Al-Kawia'') was used for the first time, and the formula hasn't changed from the current soap sold in the market. From the beginning of the 7th century, soap was produced in Nablus (Palestine), Kufa (Iraq) and Basra (Iraq). Soaps, as we know them today, are descendants of historical Arabian Soaps. Arabian Soap was perfumed and colored, while some of the soaps were liquid and others were solid. They also had special soap for shaving. It was commercially sold for 3 Dirhams (0.3 Dinars) a piece in 981 AD. A manuscript of Al-Razi (Rhazes) contains various modern recipes for soap. A recently discovered manuscript from the 13th century details more recipes for soap making, e.g. take some sesame oil, a sprinkle of potash, alkali and some lime, mix them all together, and boil. When cooked, they are poured into molds and left to set, leaving hard soap (soap bar).The invention of cosmetics. ''1001 Inventions''.

Perfumery

Al-Kindi invented a wide variety of scent and perfume products, and is considered the father of the perfume industry.

Islamic cultures contributed significantly to the development of perfumery in both perfecting the extraction of fragrances through steam distillation and by introducing new raw ingredients. Both the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.
As traders, Islamic cultures such as the Arabs and Persians had wider access to different spices, herbals, and other fragrance materials. In addition to trading them, many of these exotic materials were cultivated by the Muslims such that they could be successfully grown outside of their native climates. Two examples of this include jasmine, which is native to South and Southeast Asia, and various citrus fruits, which are native to East Asia. Both of these ingredients are still highly important in modern perfumery.
In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. The prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said:
Such rituals gave incentives to scholars to search and develop a cheaper way to produce incenses and in mass production. Two talented chemists, Jabir ibn Hayyan (born 722, Iraq), and al-Kindi (born 801, Iraq) established the perfume industry. Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil. Levey, Martin (1973), "Early Arabic Pharmacology", ''E.J. Brill: Leiden'', ISBN 90-04-03796-9. Al-Kindi, however, was the real founder of the perfume industry, as he carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products. He elaborated a vast number of ‘recipes’ for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. His work in the laboratory is reported by a witness who said:
The writer goes on in the same section to speak of the preparation of a perfume called ''ghaliya'', which contained musk, amber and other ingredients, and reveals a long list of technical names of drugs and apparatus.
Musk and floral perfumes were brought to Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries from Arabia, through trade with the Islamic world and with the returning Crusaders. Those who traded for these were most often also involved in trade for spices and dyestuffs. There are records of the Pepperers Guild of London, going back to 1179, which show them trading with Muslims in spices, perfume ingredients and dyes.Dunlop, D.M. (1975), "Arab Civilization", ''Librairie du Liban''

Shampoo

Shampoo was first developed by the Bengali Muslim Sake Dean Mahomet. He introduced it to England when he opened "Mahomed's Indian Vapour Baths" in Brighton seafront in 1759. He was later appointed as a "Shampooing Surgeon" to Kings George IV and William IV.

See also

★ Islamic science

★ Inventions in the Muslim world

★ Islamic Golden Age

References

1. John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
2. Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
3. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: Routledge.
4. Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", ''Speculum'' '40' (4), p. 744-746.
5. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196-197.
6. Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). [A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution, ''Azerbaijan International'' '9' (2).
7. Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
8. Marshall Clagett (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages'', p. 64. University of Wisconsin Press.
9. M. Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova, "Statics", in R. Rashed (1996), ''The Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science'', p. 639, Routledge, London. (cf. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)
10. Distillation, ''Hutchinson Encyclopedia'', 2007.
11. Robert Briffault (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.
12. S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '51' (1-2), p. 47-50.
13. Deborah Rowe, How Islam has kept us out of the 'Dark Ages', ''Science and Society'', ''Channel 4'', May 2004.
14. Ahmad Y Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources
15. Ahmad Y Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
16. Muslim Heritage
17. IslamOnline (Arabic)
18. Hattox, R.S. (1988), ''Coffee and Coffeehouses: the origin of a social beverage in the Medieval Near East'', University of Washington Press, Seattle and London, p. 18.