In the
history of science, 'alchemy' (
Arabic: الخيمياء, ''al-khimia'') refers to both an early form of the investigation of
nature and an early
philosophical and
spiritual discipline, both combining elements of
chemistry,
metallurgy,
physics,
medicine,
astrology,
semiotics,
mysticism,
spiritualism, and
art all as parts of one greater force. Alchemy has been practiced in
Mesopotamia,
Ancient Egypt,
Persia,
India, and
China, in
Classical Greece and
Rome, in the
Muslim civilization, and then in
Europe up to the 19th century—in a complex
network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.
"The alchemist", by Sir William Fettes Douglas, 1853
Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline
Alchemy was known as the ''spagyric art'' after Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together''. Compare this with the primary dictum of Alchemy in Latin: SOLVE ET COAGULA — ''Separate, and Join Together''.
The best known goals of the
alchemists were the of common metals into
Gold or
Silver (less well known is plant alchemy, or "
Spagyric"), and the creation of a "
panacea," a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely, and the discovery of a universal
solvent.
[1] Although these were not the only uses for the science, they were the ones most documented and well known. Starting with the
Middle Ages, European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the "
philosopher's stone", a legendary substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. The philosopher's stone was believed to mystically amplify the user's knowledge of alchemy so much that anything was attainable. Alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for their pursuit of those goals, nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day—the invention of gunpowder, ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics,
leather tanning, ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors, and so on (It seems that the preparation of ''
aqua vitae'', the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists).
Indeed, from antiquity until well into the
Modern Age, a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. For one thing, the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes, as well as the need for secrecy, led alchemists to borrow the terms and symbols of
biblical and
pagan mythology,
astrology,
kabbalah, and other mystic and
esoteric fields; so that even the plainest chemical recipe ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation. Moreover, alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental facts.
Starting with the Middle Ages, some alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and chemical substances, physical states, and material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, states and transformations. In this sense, the literal meanings of alchemical formulas were a blind hiding their true
spiritual philosophy, which being at odds with the Medieval Church was a necessity that could have otherwise lead them to the "stake and rack" of the Inquisition under charges of heresy.
[2] Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic
alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously "decoded" in order to discover their true meaning.
In his ''Alchemical Catechism'',
Paracelsus clearly denotes that his usage of the metals was a symbol:
Alchemy and astrology
Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to
astrology—which, in the
Islamic world and Europe, generally meant the traditional
Babylonian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven
planets known to the ancients "
ruled" or was associated with certain metals. See the separate article on
astrology and alchemy for further details. In
Hermeticism it is linked with both astrology and
theurgy.
Psychology
Carl Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of
individuation; in his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which
Gnosticism survived its various purges into the
Renaissance. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to a
Yoga of the
West. Jung also interpreted
Chinese alchemical texts in terms of his
analytical psychology as means to individuation. The act of Alchemy seemed to improve the mind and spirit of the Alchemist.
Magnum opus
Main articles: Magnum opus
''The Great Work''; mystic interpretation of its three stages:
[3]
★ ''nigredo(-putrefactio)'', blackening(-putrefaction):
individuation, purification, burnout of impureness; ''see also
Suns in alchemy - Sol Niger
★ ''albedo'', whitening: spiritualisation, enlightenment
★ ''rubedo'', reddening: unification of man with god, unification of the limited with the unlimited
Alchemy in the age of science
Western alchemy was a forerunner of modern scientific
chemistry. Alchemists used many of the same laboratory tools that we use today. These tools were not usually sturdy or in good condition, especially during the
Dark Ages of Europe. Many transmutation attempts failed when alchemists unwittingly made unstable chemicals. This was made worse by the unsafe conditions.
Up to the 16th century, alchemy was considered serious science in Europe; for instance,
Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy (see
Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous. Other eminent alchemists of the
Western world are
Roger Bacon, Saint
Thomas Aquinas,
Tycho Brahe,
Thomas Browne, and
Parmigianino. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational
materialism.
In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist, Baron
Carl Reichenbach, worked on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the
Odic force, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.
Matter transmutation, the old goal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms into gold atoms via a
nuclear reaction. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable
isotopes, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element transmutation—by means of
electrolysis or
sonic cavitation—were the pivot of the
cold fusion controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated.
Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by
psychologists and philosophers.
Carl Jung reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a
spiritual path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in
post-modern contexts, such as the
New Age movement.
Medical alchemy
Traditional medicines have been transmuted by alchemy, using pharmacological or combination pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In
Chinese medicine the alchemical traditions of
pao zhi will transform the nature of the temperature, taste, body part accessed or toxicity. In
Ayurveda the
samskaras are used to transform
heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. In the
spagyric processing of
herbal medicine similar effects are found.
[4] These processes are actively used to the present day.
[5][6][7]
Nuclear transmutation
In 1919,
Ernest Rutherford used
artificial disintegration to convert
nitrogen into
oxygen. This process or transmutation has subsequently been carried out on a
commercial scale by bombarding
atomic nuclei with
high energy particles from modern
particle accelerators and in
nuclear reactors. Indeed, in 1980,
Glenn Seaborg transmuted
bismuth into gold, though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities that are created would negate any possible financial benefit, unless the energy used is considered to be free and microscopic production becomes
macroscopic production.
Unduplicated transmutation claims
In 1964,
George Ohsawa and
Michio Kushi, based on the claims of
Corentin Louis Kervran, reportedly successfully transmuted
sodium into
potassium, by use of an
electric arc, and later of
carbon and
oxygen into
iron. In 1994,
R. Sundaresan and
J. Bockris reported that they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between carbon rods immersed in water, these results are similar in design and nature to fusion reaction discussed at JLN Labs.
[8].
Alchemy as a subject of historical research
The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure hermetic language of the alchemists is gradually being "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities,
kabbalism,
spiritualism,
Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements,
cryptography,
witchcraft, and the evolution of
science and
philosophy.
History
Main articles: Alchemy in history
Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in
astrology at the time.
Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships.
A major text of alchemy, called the ''
Mutus Liber'', was published in France in the late 17th century. This was a 'wordless book' that claimed to be a guide to making the
philosopher's stone, using a series of 15 symbols and illustrations.
A connection has been made between
Islam and
Egypt in a great deal more sources than one might expect, when it comes to the subject. One source in particular gives further background into the probable founding of the name itself in the following passage:
"...The concept is a very ancient one, which seems to answer to deep human motivations. It came to
Medieval Europe by way of the
Arabs. When they invaded
Egypt, which they called
Khem, in the
seventh century, the Arabs discovered that the Egyptians were masters of the art of working in
gold. They called gold-working ''al-kimiya'' - 'the art of the land of Khem' - and so, according to one account, the word 'alchemy' was born."
[9]
Etymology
Main articles: Chemistry (etymology)
The word ''chemistry'' comes from the earlier study of alchemy, which is basically the quest to make gold from earthen starting materials. As to the origin of the word “alchemy” the question is a debatable one, it certainly has Greek origins, and some, following
E. A. Wallis Budge, have also asserted Egyptian origins. Alchemy, generally, derives from the
old French ''alkemie;'' and the Arabic ''al-kimia:'' "the art of transformation." Some scholars believe the Arabs borrowed the word “kimia” from the Greeks. Others, such as Mahdihassan,
[10] argue that its origins are Chinese. A tentative outline is as follows:
#Egyptian alchemy [5,000 BC – 400 BCE]
#Greek alchemy [332 BC – CE 642], the Greeks founded Alexandria and the world’s largest library
#
Chinese alchemy [142 CE], in the book
The Kinship of the Three by
Wei Boyang
#Indian alchemy [200 CE-present], related to
metallyrgy;
Nagarjuna was an important alchemist
#
Islamic alchemy [642 - 1900 AD], the Arabs take over
Alexandria;
Jabir was the earliest chemist
#European alchemy [1300 – Present], Saint
Albertus Magnus builds on Arabic alchemy
#Chemistry [1661],
Boyle writes his classic chemistry text ''The Sceptical Chymist''
#Chemistry [1787],
Lavoisier writes his classic ''Elements of Chemistry''
#Chemistry [1803],
Dalton publishes his ''Atomic Theory''
Thus, an alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".
See also
Other alchemical pages
★
Alchemical symbol
★
Alchemy in art and entertainment
★
Alembic
★
Alkahest
★
Astrology and alchemy
★
Berith
★
Jakob Boehme
★
Circle with a point at its centre
★
Duality
★
Elixir of life
★
Robert Fludd
★
Four Humors
★
Gold water
★
Hermeticism
★
Homunculus
★
Ethan Allen Hitchcock
★
Carl Jung
★
Michael Maier
★
Musaeum Hermeticum
★
Paracelsus
★
Philosopher's stone
★
Quintessence
★
Herbert Silberer
★
Vulcan of the alchemists
Other resources
★
List of alchemists
★
List of magical terms and traditions
★
List of occultists
Related and alternative philosophies
★
Western mystery tradition
★
Internal alchemy
★
Astrology
★
Necromancy,
magic,
magick
★
Esotericism,
Rosicrucianism,
Illuminati
★
Taoism and the
Five Elements
★
Asemic Writing
★
Kayaku-Jutsu
★
Acupuncture,
moxibustion,
ayurveda,
homeopathy
★
Anthroposophy
★
Psychology and
Carl Jung
★
New Age
★
Tay al-Ard
Substances of the alchemists
★
lead •
tin •
iron •
copper •
mercury •
silver •
gold
★
phosphorus •
sulfur •
arsenic •
antimony
★
vitriol •
cinnabar •
pyrites •
orpiment •
galena
★
magnesia •
lime •
potash •
natron •
saltpetre •
kohl
★
ammonia •
ammonium chloride •
alcohol •
camphor
★ Acids:
sulfuric •
muriatic •
nitric •
acetic •
formic •
citric•
tartaric
★
aqua regia •
gunpowder
★
carmot
Scientific connections
★
Chemistry
★
Physics
★
Scientific method
★
Protoscience,
Pseudoscience, and
Anti-science
★
Obsolete scientific theories
★
Historicism
References
1. Alchemy as Dictionary.com
2. The Secret Doctrine, , H.P., Blavatsky, Theosophical Publishing Company, 1888,
3. Meyrink und das theomorphische Menschenbild
4. Tillotson, Alan; AHG, D.Ay., PhD "Safety and Regulation"
5. Tierra, Michael; AHG, OMD, L.Ac. ''Processing Chinese Herbs''
6. "Benefits of Herbal Extracts"; herbalist-alchemist.com
7. Junius, Manfred M; ''The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs''; Healing Arts Press 1985
8. "The Mini-Romag Generator"' jnaudin.free.fr
9. Mysteries of Mind, Space & Time - The Unexplained, Volume 1; Published by H.S. Stuttman, Inc. © Orbis Publishing Limited 1992, Westport, Connecticut.
10. Mahdihassan S. "Alchemy, Chinese versus Greek, an etymological approach: a rejoinder"
★ Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books
★
Encyclopedia of the Occult, Gettgins, Fred, , , Rider, 1986,
★
Chemical History Tour, Picturing Chemistry from Alchemy to Modern Molecular Science, Greenberg, Adele Droblas, , , Wiley-Interscience, 2000,
★
Why does a ball bounce? 101 Questions that you never thought of asking, Hart-Davis, Adam, , , Firefly Books, 2003,
★
On the Elements, Marius, , , University of California Press, 1976, Trans. Richard Dales.
★
The World of Physics, Weaver, Jefferson Hane, , , Simon & Schuster, 1987,
★
Chemistry, Zumdahl, Steven S., , , D.C. Heath and Company, 1989,
External links
★
The Alchemy website - Alchemy from a metaphysical perspective.
★
The al-kemi.org website - Alchemy from a spiritual/philosophical perspective.
★
Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry
★
''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Alchemy
★
''Antiquity'', Vol. 77 (2003) - "A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab".
★
The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry, Muir, M. M. Pattison (1913)
★
"Transforming the Alchemists",
New York Times,
August 1,
2006.
Historical revisionism and alchemy.
★
Electronic library with some 350 alchemical books (15th- and 20th-century)
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